s  Problem Solving
OVERVIEWChi and Glaser (1985) define problem solving as a situation in which a person is trying to reach some goal and must find a means for arriving at it. Interest in the study of problem solving originated in the work of the Gestalt Psychologists in the early part of the 20th century. As you might imagine, they saw problem solving in perceptual terms -- as a novel rearrangement of the perceptual elements of the gestalt. Thus problem solving was seen as a discontinuous process in which one achieves "insight" into the solution by the sudden rearrangement of elements. This view is supported by the many times you have had an "ah hah" experience in suddenly solving a problem that you have been struggling with -- perhaps for days or longer. Below is an example of just such a problem. Used by Silvera (1971) in establishing the incubation effect, it is known as the cheap necklace problem. Try and solve it.
Don't be discouraged if it took you a while. Only 55% of the subjects were able to solve the problem within the first half-hour. Some subjects worked on the problem briefly and then had breaks of either a half-hour or four hours. Subjects with breaks solved the problem more quickly, with the group having the four hour break doing best. The outcome supports the phenomenon of incubation for those problems that lend themselves to insightful solutions. It turns out that not all problem solving is discontinuous in nature. Some types of problems require incremental (continuous) solutions. Performance improves with increasing attempts or in steps. Show The study of problem solving waned during the behaviorist period. Behaviorism, as you know, saw problem solving in terms of trial and error with reinforcement strengthening the correct response in an incremental way. The emergence of Cognitive psychology with its emphasis on the information processing approach, has produced renewed interest in problem solving as a cognitive phenomenon. For the most part, the information processing approach has adopted an incremental view of problem solving -- problems are solved in a series of steps. Irrespective of whether one adopts a discontinuous or incremental model of problem solving, all agree that the most critical factor in understanding the problem is constructing an adequate internal representation of the problem. Since a first step in constructing an adequate representation might well be characterizing the kind of problem one faces, we look first at typologies of problems suggested by Greeno (1978). Return to top PROBLEM TYPOLOGIES AND INTERNAL REPRESENTATIONGreeno (1978) has suggested three basic forms of problems each associated with a particular cognitive operation or skill necessary to solve problems of that type.
determining the relationship among several given elements of the problem. Example: analogy problems DOCTOR:PATIENT::LAWYER:_________ Requires three kinds of skills: finding a sequence of operations that transform the initial situation into a goal state. Typically, the permited operations are limited and constraining. These kinds of problems lend themselves to formalization (expressed in symbols with rules) Examples: The Five-Handed Monster Problem (click to view) The Hobbits-and-Orcs Problem (click to view) Skill required: Means-End Analysis problem is to arrange some element according to some criterion. Example: The anagram problem Arrange the letters AIFMA to make a word Skill required: Constructive Search
--all the parts are connected in a way that makes sense --the representation "maps well" onto the elements in the outside world --links to existing knowledge provide the source for solutions Matlin (1998) suggests a number of methods of representing the problem:
PROBLEM-SOLVING APPROACHESTwo very commonly-used strategies in solving problems are the algorithmic and heuristic.
DONALD +GERALD ROBERT The algorithmic solution is to simpy make all possible assignments of digits to letters until the correct solution is found. Notice while such an exhaustive search might be quite difficult for humans, it would present no problem to a computer.The heuristic solution, on the other hand, starts with what we know about numbers. Supposing I tell you the D=5 as a hint. You now deduce that T=0, that a carry of 1 is generated, therefore R has to be odd since the same number added to itself produces an even sum -- so L+L+1 has to be odd, etc. One very important heuristic to emerge from problem solving studies is the Means-Ends Heuristic. The Means-Ends Heuristic Characterized by two components:
Newell and Simon and General Problem Solver Allen Newell and Herbert Simon (Newell & Simon, 1972; Simon, 1995) developed a theory of problem solving that conceives of:
the true representation of a problem in an objective and neutral way the internal representation of the problem -- usually incomplete In an attempt to support their theory, Newell and Simon developed a computer program that simulated human problem solving. These researchers had human subjects think out loud as they solved problems (among them, the cryptarithmetic problem) from which they created written protocols. Processes and strategies that emerged from the protocols were encoded into the program called General Problem Solver or GPA. The program, intended to solve a wide range of problems incorporated the human strategy of working with subproblems, of seeking steps that would reduce the distance to the goal, of applying the appropriate operator to bring this change about. The program was most succussful at solving the kinds of problems that lend themselves to formal representation (like Hobbits-and-Orcs, Five-Handed Monsters, Towers of Hanoi). The point to computer models of problem solving isn't so much to turn problem solving over to computers as it is to force theorists to clarify and increase the precision of their theories. Work in this area continues. Return to top FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PROBLEM SOLVING
Since problem solving depends do critically on a well-developed internal representaton of the problem, it is not surprising that expertise, with the many additional links it provides, is an important factor. Among the specific advantages, one would have to list: An inability to adopt new strategies in solving problems operates against finding solutions. Functional Fixedness -- DEFINITIONCreativity as a concept is very difficult to define. Like deja vu, it is impossible to manipulate and produce on demand in the laboratory. Like beauty, its existence may lie in the eye of the beholder. However, like pornography, while difficult to define, we know it when we see it. Clearly, however, it is part of problem solving. Among the qualities that characterize creativity are:
Given the difficulty in defining the concept of creativity, it's not surprising that the methods of studying it are quite diverse and may not strike you as having, in all cases, face validity. Among the approaches are:
In this test, subjects are encouraged to make as many and as varied responses to test item as possible. The greater the number, the more creative the person is assumed to be. The two items below suggest how the test works: This test was devised Mednick and Mednick (1967). In the test, each item consists of three words which must be linked together by a single word. Some sample items: A method suggested by Teresa Amabile who suggests that creativity is a property of products rather than people. In this approach, a product is considered creative if a group of expert obervers judge it to be so. One final word: The role of incubation in creative problem solving should not be underestimated. In both the Gestalt and contemporary literature, one finds support for the notion that time spent away from a problem appears to enhance the likelihood of finding a solution. What problemHeuristics are mental shortcuts that allow people to solve problems and make judgments quickly and efficiently. These rule-of-thumb strategies shorten decision-making time and allow people to function without constantly stopping to think about their next course of action.
What is heuristic ruleA heuristic is a rule-of-thumb, or a guide toward what behavior is appropriate for a certain situation. Heuristics are also known as “mental shortcuts” (Kahneman, 2011). Such shortcuts can aid us when we face time pressure to decide, or when conditions are complex and our attention is divided.
Which problemHeuristics are rules of thumb that often, but not always, help us solve problems. They are shortcuts that are faster than algorithms, but they are not always reliable.
What is a heuristic rule?Heuristic rules are shortcuts that deliver quicker decisions than traditional methods when problem-solving in computing and elsewhere – we could even say they are used to reach educated guesses.
|
A rule of thumb approach which may be more prone to error but faster in problem solving is a
zusammenhängende Posts
Urheberrechte © © 2024 IlerngutCOM Inc.
