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-even the concept of personality lacks universality
-"the concepts of personality is an expression of the Western ideal of individualism."
-in most cultures there is a marked absence of discourse that explains human behavior in terms of transsituationally stable or intentional properties captures by explanations of trait and dispostitions
-challenge: whether the core concepts of traits is universal or instead, is a local concept applicable only in Western Cultures.
-Most extreme of these perspectives: the notion of personality, as an internal set of psychological charactertistics, is an arbitrary construction of Western culture
-at other extreme: is the postion that personality traits are universal in their applicability and that precisely the same personality structure will emerge across cultures.

Sources of Evidence:
1)pertains to the existence of trait terms in other cultures.
-many non-western psycholigst have described traitlike concepts that are indigenous to non-Western cultures and that appear striking like those that appear in Western cultures. --> Many non-Western cultures appear to have traitlike concepts embedded in their langauges in much the same way that the American culture and english language do.
2) concerns whether the same factor of personality traits is found across cultures---> do different cultures have roughly the same broad categories of traits?
-the trait perspective on personality, of course, does not require the existence of precisely the same traits in all cultures.--> trait perspective might be extremely useful even if culture were to differ radically in terms of which trait dimension they used.
-most powerful support for the trait perspective across cultures would occur if the structure of personality traits were found to be the same across cultures.

two approaches in exploring issue:
1) "transport and test": psychologist have translated existing questionnaires into other languages and then have administered them to native residents in other cultures.
-study suggest that cross-cultural evidence for the five-factor model is not limited to self-report data, but extend to observer-based data as well.
-using the transport and test strategy, the five-factore structure of personality appears to be general across cultures.
2)most powerful test of generality, would come from studies that start out using indigenous personality dimensions first, then testing whether the five-factor structure still emerges,
-in each case, the trait terms in the language were identified. --> the percentage of words in each langauge that constituted trait terms was remarkably consistent.
3) next step was to reduce this list to a manageable number of several hundred trait terms, identified as indigenous to each culture, which could then be tested in each culture. --> there was tremendous replicability of four of the five factores of the five-factor model: Extraversion, agreeablness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability.
-this study found some difference in what constituted the fifth factor--> in some cultures, such as Polish and German the fifth factor model resembled the American fifth factor (intellect-openness), with intelligent and imaginative anchoring one end and dull and unimaginative anchoring the other.
-other languages, revealed different fifth factors. In Dutch, the fifth factor seemed more like a dimension of political orientation, ranging from conservative to progressive. In Hungarian, the fifth factor seemed to be on of truthfulness, just and truthful at one end, and greedy and hypocritical at the other.
-fifth factor appeared to be somewhat variable across cultures.
-a sixth factor, honesty-humility, has been revealed by at least some studies using the indigenous strategy.