Lecture Section 1 00:00:01 PROFESSOR: Suppose you're walking down the street and see two men stealing a tire from someone's car. You may think that they're immoral or even criminals. But what if what you didn't know was that they removed the tire from a car that they knew for a fact had been stolen. Is what they did still wrong? What if the police were able to find the car and return it to its rightful
owner? 00:00:21 Does it justify their act? In this section, we will discuss the question, what determines right from wrong? This is Section 1 of Moral Development. Our objectives are to discuss developmental trends in moral development and describe various factors influencing one's morality, to explain Lawrence Kohlberg's stage theory of moral reasoning, and to discuss criticisms of and 00:00:43 proposed adaptations to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning. In this section,
we'll be discussing developmental trends in moral development and we'll be describing various factors that influence one's morality. Moral development is defined as developmental transitions in reasoning concerning standards of right and wrong. These standards are culturally defined or self-constructed. 00:01:07 Children use internal standards to reason about behavior at an early age. For example, infants and toddlers may hide their eyes if they see aggression or violence. Eventually,
children are able to distinguish between what is defined as good and bad. Children are better able to distinguish between moral and conventional transgressions as they age. 00:01:27 A moral transgression is a behavior that causes harm or violates the needs or rights of others, for example, murder. A conventional transgression is a behavior that violates social norms or socially acceptable behavior, for example, undressing in public. Children and adults don't always agree on the difference
between a moral transgression and a conventional 00:01:48 transgression or what should be considered a personal choice. For example, an adult may view taking drugs as a moral transgression, whereas a teenager may argue that taking drugs is OK as long as it doesn't harm anyone else. Children's capacity for empathy increases with age. This motivates moral behavior. As they age, children more often demonstrate signs of 00:02:10 guilt or shame in response to hurting another. Children
demonstrating these emotions as toddlers are less likely to misbehave later. In grade school, children often show empathy for those they're closest to or know well. As they get older, they may also demonstrate signs of empathy for those they don't know. Morality is influenced by many factors, for example, social 00:02:31 interactions with family and peers, or culture which can influence thoughts and beliefs. Let's talk about each of these. Parental perspectives and communication methods
influence moral reasoning in children. Children tend to mimic parental behavior, and discussing moral issues with children helps to improve moral judgments and increase moral behavior. 00:02:53 Parents who reason with their children openly about moral issues influence their morality. Children are more likely to consider the effects of their behavior when parents allow opportunities for a child to reason about moral issues. Interactions with peers can help to promote moral development.
These interactions help to establish perspective taking 00:03:12 and practice conflict resolution. They also improve comprehension of how personal behavior affects another. One must be able to take another's perspective in order to establish effective social relationships. Being able to take another's perspective increases understanding of how another would feel in a different person's situation. 00:03:33 Cultural thoughts and beliefs influence one's moral reasoning and behavior.
Cultures generally differ in what behavior is considered right or wrong. For example, lying to avoid punishment is often considered wrong in Western countries, yet it's judged as an appropriate way of keeping one out of trouble in other countries. 00:03:51 Moral reasoning and decision making in all cultures is often dependent on the situation. For example, you can believe action requiring justice is appropriate in some situations, while acts of compassion are appropriate in others.
Finally, many cultures place value on concern for individual rights as well as the well-being of others. Cultures often convey acceptable 00:04:13 behavior through the media. What is produced or published through the media can positively or negatively impact moral development. This includes what's seen on television, video games, and in popular culture. There's been criticism against how much of an impact the media has on the moral development of children. Some argue that media provides a
source for children to view 00:04:33 acceptable and unacceptable behavior, as well as the consequences associated with those behaviors. Others claim that media that's violence or that demeans others can negatively influence a child's moral standards. They claim that violent behavior that's glorified on TV may influence a child to believe it's OK to harm another. 00:04:53 So to review in this section, we discussed developmental trends in morality. Changes in moral reasoning occur as
children get older. We also talked about influences on moral development. This can come with social interactions, through one's family and peers, as well as in culture which influences one's thoughts and beliefs. 00:05:12 Next, we'll discuss Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development.
Section 4 00:00:01 PROFESSOR: There are both internal and cultural standards that individuals strive to live by. We also know that the sense of what is fair and
right isn't the same in children as it is in adults. In this section, we'll attempt to answer the question, how does moral reasoning change over time? This is Section 2 of Moral Development. Our objectives are to discuss developmental trends in moral 00:00:24 development and describe various factors influencing one's morality, to explain Lawrence Kohlberg's stage theory of moral reasoning, and to discuss criticisms and propose adaptations to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning.
In this section, we'll be explaining Lawrence Kohlberg's stage theory of moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was an American developmental 00:00:45 psychologist who claimed that one's level of moral development is determined by how an individual reasons about moral dilemmas. Kohlberg was more interested in how someone reasoned about behavior rather than whether behavior was judged as right or wrong. Here are some basic assumptions on moral development, as developed by
Kohlberg. 00:01:05 He thought that moral behavior is influenced by moral reasoning. For example, if one is unethical, they've oftentimes justified or rationalized their behavior in some way and determined if the behavior is wrong. Kohlberg felt that moral reasoning involves judging whether or not an act is moral. This justification of reasoning 00:01:24 determines moral maturity. And individuals progress through stages of moral reasoning as age increases. These stages are experienced
in order. Kohlberg claimed that these stages were also universal. Kohlberg claimed there are three levels of moral reasoning, preconventional conventional, and postconventional. 00:01:45 There are a total of six stages of development, because there are two stages at each level. Let's take a look at each of them. One example of a moral dilemma Kohlberg would test is in the story of "The Tailor." "In a country in Europe, a poor man named Valjean could not find work and nor could his sister
or brother. Without money, he stole food and medicine that they needed. 00:02:08 He was captured and sentenced to prison for six years. After a couple of years, he escaped from the prison and went to live in another part of the country under a new name. He saved money and slowly built up a big factory, giving his workers the highest wages. He used most of his profits to build a hospital for people who couldn't afford good medical care. 00:02:26 20 years passed, when the tailor
recognized Valjean as the escaped convict whom the police had been looking for back in his hometown." Should the tailor report Valjean to the police? Why or why not? Kohlberg would say how you reason about your decisions determines what level of moral development you're in. The first level is preconventional morality. 00:02:48 This is a level of morality based on self-interest. The primary focus is on personal needs and wants. Here are the preconventional stages. Stage 1 is obedience and
punishment. Behaviors that are judged as wrong are those that are punished. For example, stealing is wrong, because I get punished for it. 00:03:08 Stage 2 is exchange of favors. Behaviors that are judged to be right are those that are rewarded by others. One may believe it's OK to steal, for example, if they knew later on the person would do it for them. Or you may reason that I'll pick up my room if my mom will pay me $1 for it. Here are some examples of preconventional
reasoning 00:03:30 concerning Valjean's behavior. "Turn Valjean in. He broke the law, and those who do so are punished. Therefore, what he did was wrong." This first block is an example of Stage 1 of preconventional reasoning. The quote represents someone who's making a moral decision based off of what's punished. "Don't turn Valjean in to the police, but make sure Valjean 00:03:52 knows that the tailor is doing him a favor, so he can return the favor later." This second block
represents Stage 2 of preconventional reasoning. The quote represents a person who thinks that one favor, not turning Valjean in, should be done as a favor that will be repaid later on. Conventional morality is a level of morality based on the acceptance of social standards concerning right and wrong. 00:04:16 The primary focus is on gaining approval and pleasing others. One believes that rules are necessary for maintaining good relationships and social order. Stage 3 of conventional
reasoning is good boy/good girl. Behaviors that are judged as right and wrong are determined by personal social relationships. 00:04:35 For example, I don't chew gum in class because my teacher doesn't like that. Stage 4 is law and order. Behaviors that are judged as right and wrong are determined by societal rules. For example, you're not supposed to run in the hallways at school because running is against the rules. Here are examples of conventional reasoning 00:04:55 concerning
Valjean's behavior. "Don't turn Valjean in, because he has a good relationship with his workers and he treats others well." This first block is an example of Stage 3 of conventional reasoning, because the quote focuses on the state of Valjean's relationship with others. "Turn Valjean in, because the tailor has an obligation to society to do so. 00:05:16 If Valjean walks free without being punished, then what is the purpose of having laws?" This second block represents Stage 4 of
conventional reasoning, because the person is focused on meeting societal obligations and obeying laws in society. Postconventional morality is a level of morality based on self-determined principles of right and wrong. The primary focus is establishing a 00:05:38 personal code of ethics. Acceptance of rules is less rigid and more flexible. One may disagree with societal rules or laws if they conflict with one's personal code of ethics. Stage 5 of postconventional reasoning is social
contract. Behaviors that are judged as right or wrong are determined by what maintains social order the best and what best protects individuals. 00:06:02 For example, if a law doesn't allow for equal rights to everyone, an individual in Stage 5 may reason it should be changed. Stage 6 is universal ethical principle. Behaviors that are judged as right or wrong are determined by personal ethical principles. Here are some examples of postconventional reasoning concerning Valjean's
behavior. 00:06:24 "Given that Valjean has not broken any other laws, it's probably OK not to contact the police. If there isn't a way for those without money to get medicine or personal care, then law should be changed so more people don't steal." This first block represents Stage 5 of postconventional reasoning, because it focuses on what's best for individuals in society. "Don't turn Valjean in. 00:06:46 He's a good man. He was only stealing in order to help his family, which is
more important than a law. The police should have taken his situation into account before putting him in prison." This second block is representative of Stage 6 of postconventional reasoning, because the quote represents someone who's reasoning based on their personal view of the situation and their personal 00:07:07 judgment of Valjean's behavior. So to review in this section, we discussed Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning. He claimed that moral reasoning determines one's
level of moral development. He theorized that people go through three levels of moral development, preconventional, conventional, and postconventional reasoning. 00:07:26 Finally, he claimed that all individuals progress from one level to another, through 6 stages. Next, we'll discuss some criticisms and different perspectives of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning.
Section 7 00:00:00 PROFESSOR: We know that many aspects of development happen in
the same manner across cultures, such as sequence and aspects of biological and cognitive development. But is the same true for moral development? In this section, we'll attempt to answer the question is moral development the same across cultures? This is section three of moral development. Our objectives are to discuss developmental trends in moral 00:00:25 development and describe various factors influencing one's morality, to explain Lawrence Kohlberg's stage theory of moral reasoning,
and to discuss criticisms of and proposed adaptations to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning. In this section, we'll be discussing criticisms of and proposed adaptations to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning. 00:00:47 Lawrence Kohlberg was an American developmental psychologist who claimed that one's level of moral development is determined by how an individual reasons about moral dilemmas. He developed a theory of moral reasoning which consists of three levels of
reasoning. They include the preconventional, conventional, and postconventional levels. 00:01:06 Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning has drawn support through research. We know one's level of moral reasoning is tied to their level of cognitive development. We know individuals generally progress through the stages as age increases. And we know that level of moral reasoning is linked to moral behavior. 00:01:23 So individuals who demonstrate higher levels of moral reasoning tend to be
more altruistic and honest. Several criticisms of Kohlberg's theory have also been supported through research. For example, individuals demonstrate more than one level of moral reasoning at a time. One may demonstrate preconventional reasoning on some issues, but demonstrate conventional 00:01:43 reasoning on others. For example, a child may reason that something is wrong as he sees his brother get punished for doing the act. But he may also be able to understand that a person may break
the law in order to help others. Also, Kohlberg's theory may not be applicable to all cultures. Kohlberg's claim be more reflective of Western nations. 00:02:03 Critics claim that Kohlberg's perspective is liberal and idealistic. Some critics claim Kohlberg's theory ignores other aspects of moral development that extend beyond one's reasoning. As a result, contemporary research on moral development has focused on other issues besides one level of reasoning. For example, development of
empathy. 00:02:23 Research has focused on whether or not individuals are born with the ability to feel empathy for others, or if it develops as a result of social interactions. Research has focused on development of conscience and prosocial behavior, which is behavior that promotes social interactions. Finally, research has focused on the influence of moral emotions such a shame and guilt. 00:02:45 Carol Gilligan worked as Kohlberg's research assistant. She opposed Kohlberg's claim
that women were at a lower level of moral reasoning than men. Kohlberg's research demonstrated that women's moral reasoning was often based on maintaining social relationships, or stage three of conventional reasoning, and that many men's reasoning was based on societal law and order, which is stage four of conventional reasoning. 00:03:09 Carol Gilligan accused Kohlberg's research of being biased against women. She suggested that males and females differ in their styles of reasoning,
rather than their levels of moral advancement. She developed justice reasoning, which is predominately displayed by males, as well as care reasoning, which is predominately 00:03:25 displayed by females. Let's discuss each. Justice reasoning is thinking in terms of rules and justice. What is judged as right or wrong is based on impartiality and fairness. Men focus on rights and rules, and acts of justice should be based on the rules and norms. Care reasoning is thinking in terms of caring
and relationships. 00:03:48 Women think of what is judged as right or wrong as based on needs of others. It focuses on relationships and responsibilities, and acts of justice should be based on circumstance or situation. So men are concerned with competing rights as women focus on conflicting responsibilities. So to review in this section, we discussed strengths and criticisms of Lawrence Kohlberg's 00:04:10 theory of moral reasoning. One critic with Carol Gilligan. She felt that
women develop differently because they have different moral perspectives than men. And men think in terms of justice and rules, while women think in terms of care and relationships. In this lesson, we discussed moral development. An individual's morality is influenced by various factors 00:04:31 such as social interactions, cultural beliefs, and habits. Lawrence Kohlberg's developed a theory of moral reasoning to demonstrate different levels of moral development. Strength and criticisms of
Kohlberg's have been identified through research. Due to biases in Kohlberg's theory, Carol Gilligan proposed and demonstrated that males and females have different perspectives regarding moral reasoning.
