What is an abstract generalization that explains how phenomena are interrelated

DAY 11: THEORIES, MODELS, CONCEPTS AND

FRAMEWORKS

Theories

• Theory is a set of statement that describes or explains phenomena in a systematic way, pointing out why one event relates to another or what causes an event to occur.

• The term theory is used in many ways. For example, nursing instructors and student often use the term to refer to classroom content, as opposed to the actual practice of performing nursing actions. In both lay and scientific usage, the term theory connotes an abstraction (Polit and Beck, 2012)

-In research, the term theory is used differently by different authors. Classically, scientists have used theory to refer to an abstract generalization that offers a systematic explanation about how phenomena are interrelated. In this traditional definition, a theory embodies at least two concepts that are related in manner that the theory purports to explain. Thus, traditional theories typically have explanation or prediction as their purposes

Evaluating a Theory - To determine whether or not a theory serves the purpose of the study, its usefulness and applicability depend on internal and external criteria (Tomey, 2008).

1. Internal Criteria

• It deals with how theory component fit with each other

a. Semantic and Structural Clarity (How clear is the theory?)

-A theory should identify major concepts and its sub-concepts. The words contained therein should be chosen carefully to elicit its true meaning and use. Proposition must be clear, assumptions are consistent with the theory goals and relationships between concepts are simple and well structured, valid and reliable through testability of its hypothesis.

b. Semantic and Structural Simplicity (How simple is the theory?)

• A theory must be comprehensive and concrete. The words used must be simple and depicts reality which enables the nurse to understand its meaning. Paradigm and models are developed and formulated according to its goals and propositions.

C. Generalizability (How broad is the theory?)

-The scope and goals of theory must be broad, yet significant enough to state its entire meaning into one holistic idea.

d. Empirical precision (How accessible is the theory?) -A theory is limited to its testability and ultimate use. All its major and minor concepts are

grounded in observable reality.

e. Derivable Consequences (How important is the theory?)

-A theory, to be sensible and useful, must develop and guide nurses in their professional endeavor. Knowledge derived from theory must help explain the occurrence of certain phenomenon or nursing situations. A theory also helps plan and implement accurate interventions as well as predict and control undesirable outcomes of a nursing intervention specific to a phenomenon.

f .Complexity and Parsimony (How accurate is the theory?)

-Complexity in a theory examines the relationship among many variables, while parsimony is the decision criteria that when two (2) or more theoretically sound solution exist, the least complex solution with the fewest assumptions should be selected.

2. External Criteria. It deals with how a particular theory relates to the world of people, health, environment and nursing.

a. Adequacy (How adequate is the theory?)

• The theory deals satisfactorily with the nurse researcher’s perspective of nursing. There is adequacy of principles and interpretations to elicit understanding of the meanings and implications of theory to practice.

b. Utility (How useful is the theory?)

-The theory is useful in education, research and practice. It must fit the work environment of nurses, and operationalized for application and testing in any health care situations. It should help build the curriculum, promotes sound decision making and facilitates hypotheses testing.

c. Significance (How meaningful is the theory?)

-The theory must address issues basic and relevant to nursing practice and aims toward increasing nursing knowledge.

D. Discrimination (How practical is the theory?)

-The theory must clearly show its relatedness to nursing. It must discriminate between what nursing is and what it Is not

e. Scope (How specific is the theory?)

• It indicates whether the theory has narrow or broad focus and can simplify relatedness of concepts and or variables in the study.

Models

identify a phenomenon rather than what is observable.

Hence, it projects an abstract meaning to the reader and can be subjected to several interpretations. This type of definition also refers to the subjective or theoretical/textual meaning of the word.

Sources: Dictionary, Related Literature, Authoritative sources

Example: Motivation - Something that causes a person to act (Webster, 2004) Problem - A source of perplexity or vexation Pain - A subjective experience perceived to be unpleasant, initiated by potentially damaging stimuli but influenced by affective variables.

b. Operational definition -Operational definition is the researcher's own definition of terms as used in the study. It is concrete and measurable, based on observable characteristics of what is being defined within the context of the phenomenon being investigated. This also refers to the objective or practical/functional meaning of the word.

Sources: Empirical data, related literature, research studies, established theories.

Example: -Motivation - Ability of the nurse on duty to accomplish her tasks on time -Problem - Inability of the patient to meet his daily dietary requirements -Pain - refers to the score obtained in a 10cm visual analogue scale in which zero (0) represents "no pain" and ten (10) represents the worst pain imaginable

**Kinds of Operational Definitions (Tomey,2008)

1. Denotative Definition.-** Variables are defined according to implications or associations one might make with the variable. It suggests what one might think when considering the term.

Examples: =Father - a male parent =Nurse - one who cares for people, sick or well Denotation can be thought of as dictionary meanings or definitions. 2. Connotative Definition. -Variables are defined according to implications or associations one might make with the variable. It suggests what one might think when considering the term. Examples: =Father - strong, provider, head of the family, disciplinarian =Nurse -warm, gentle mannered, health provider Connotation is related to the subjective and cultural experiences of individuals. C. Lexical Definitions or Definitions from Authoritative Sources

• These are definitions taken from authorities on the subjects or terms being defined. These must be properly acknowledged in the footnotes or endnotes.

Examples: Morale. According to Keith (1990), is a state of well-being that elevates the spirit, generates self- confidence and arouses pride in being part of group endeavor.

Comfort. Paterson (Paterson & Zderard, 1988) stated that comfort is a construct that communicates the nature or experience of the nurse. She believed that comfort was an umbrella under which all other nursing terms could be sheltered, such as growth health, freedom and openness.

Definitions are more meaningful when stated in sentences rather than in isolated words or phrases. The usual practice, when using these types of definitions is to state first the conceptual, followed by the Operational. although, preference is for the latter. Conceptual definitions may be embodied in the theoretical framework and operationalized through concrete examples.

Examples of Conceptual and Operational Definition

VARIABLE CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION OPERATIONAL DEFINITION (AS USED IN THE STUDY) A professional An individual who practices a profession

Any individual with four years of education in a particular college Introversion Self-directed interest The tendency of a student to isolate from the group

DAY 13: ASSUMPTIONS

Assumptions -These are statements or assertions taken for granted or are considered true even if they have yet to be proven scientifically. Assumptions are not synonymous to mere quess because despite the absence of scientific proof, they have good logical basis. Assumptions are related to the problem usually drawn from the theoretical framework. They may be explicit or implicit.

-These assertions may be also accepted by the researcher as true, on the basis of logic or reason. Hence, they do not need verification or testing (Tomey, 2008).

Types of Assumptions -There are three types of assumptions: Universal assumptions, study assumptions, theory or research-based assumptions.

a. Universal Assumptions These are assumptions derived from the personal knowledge of the researcher or from observed facts, experiences and findings of previous researches which are directly related to the problem of inquiry. They are also beliefs taken as true by most people, but may or may not need testing or verification.

**Examples:

1. All human beings need love
2. Breast milk is the best food for infants**

Types of Hypotheses

• The hypothesis states the relationship between the independent and dependent variables and the population to which the relationship applies. It is simple, clear and concise and defines the variables in concrete and operational terms (Polit & Beck, 2008).

1. Simple vs. Complex Hypotheses

a. Simple Hypothesis

• Simple hypotheses states an expected relationship between one (1) independent and one (1) dependent variable. It is also called univariate hypothesis.

Example: Tall people (X1,) eat more (Y1) than short people (X1) -Based on the foreqoing syllogism, the height of an individual (one independent variable X1,) is affected by his eatinq pattern (one dependent variable Y1). However, his weight cannot be predicted since it is not the focus of the inquiry. The independent variable (X1, height is the focus of the investigation, which the researcher works on to predict, analyze or assess the extent of relationships with the dependent variable (Y1, eating patterns).

b. Complex Hypotheses

• Complex hypotheses predict the relationship between two (2) or more dependent variable; also called multivariate hypothesis because it involves multiple variable.

Supposing hypotheses is: X - is the single independent variable, the presumed cause or antecedent. Y - is the single dependent variable which is affected or influenced by one X variable.

In some instances there are two (2) or more independent variable vs. a single (1) dependent variable or vice versa. Example: Tall people (X1) and people with high caloric intake (X2) tend to weigh more (Y1) than short people and people with low caloric intake.

There are also instances of one (1) independent variable vs. two (2) dependent variables Example: Tall people (X1) tend to eat more (Y1) and weigh more (Y2) than short people.

Some complex inquires involve two (2) or more independent variables vs. two (2) or more dependent variables. Example: Tall people (X1) and people with high caloric intake (X2) tend to eat more (Y1) and weigh more (Y2) than short people and people with low calorie intake.

The independent variables (X) are height and calorie intake while the dependent variables (y) are the manner of eating and weight.

2. Directional vs. Non-Directional Hypotheses

a. Directional Hypothesis Directional hypothesis states the nature (positive or negative) between two or more variables. The use of terms such as positive, negative, less, more, increase, decrease, greater, higher, or lower in a hypothesis indicates the direction of the relationship.

Examples: Infants of Heroin-Addicted Mothers have lower birth weights than Infants of Non-Heroin Addicted Mothers.

Older Nurses are less likely to express approval of their Expanding Role than Younger Nurses.

b. Non-Directional Hypothesis Non-Directional hypothesis states that a relationship exists but does not predict the nature of the relationship. If the direction of the relationship being studied is not clear in clinical practice or in the theoretical or empirical literature, the researcher has no clear indication of the nature of the relationship.

Examples: The older the patient, the greater the risk that she/he will fall. Older patients differ from younger ones with respect to their moods.

3. Associative vs. Causal hypothesis a. Associative Hypothesis Associative hypothesis proposes relationship among variables that occur or exist together in the real world, so that when one variable changes, the other changes.

Example: Dyspnea, fatigue and sleep are related to functional performance.

b. Causal Hypothesis Causal hypothesis proposes a cause-and effect interaction between two or more variables.

Example: Students who eat breakfast and have an eight-hour sleep will have good performance in academics.

4. Research vs. Statistical Hypotheses

a. Research Hypothesis Research hypothesis is also referred to as substantive or declarative hypothesis or statements of expected relationships between variables. It is also known as alternative hypothesis.

Example. "Infants born to heroin-addicted mothers have the same birth weight as infants born to non-heroin addicted mothers.

This may also be stated this way: "There is a significant relationship between maternal heroin addiction and birth weight of infants "

The different types of evaluative research are: process analysis, outcome analysis, impact analysis and cost- benefit analysis.

d. Content Analysis

-Content analysis refers to the quantification of narrative data of a research report, published articles or any form of communications for purposes of analysis and evaluation. However, it can be qualitative too, when it pertains to the meaning of the information to be disseminated.

Example: "The position of Congress to the 'Malpractice Bill' for Physicians." "The Culture of Graft and Corruption in the Philippines"

The frequency with which the content or symptoms appeared during the presentation shall be analyzed and interpreted whether it is favorable, unfavorable or neutral to the concerned sectors.

e. Clinical Trials or Intervention Research

• Clinical trials are designed to assess the safety and effectiveness of a nursing intervention. The study may involve and experimental or quasi-experimental design and quantitative analysis of variables. It consists of several phases using randomized heterogeneous sampling of subjects (Polit and Beck, 2008).

Example: Clinical Trial to test a nurse managed intervention called "Smoking Cessation Intervention (SCI)" compared to a "routine or standard treatment" among women who smoke.

Phase I. Pre-experimental design of the SCI to determine its efficacy and safety.

Phase Il. Pilot test of the SCI to seek evidences for possible side effects.

Phase III. Actual experimentation using a Randomized Clinical Trial (RCT) assignment of samples to a control group (standard treatment) and experimental group (SCI treatment). This is used to arrive at a decision of whether the SCI is more effective than the standard treatment helping women stop smoking.

Phase IV. Adopting the decision arrived at Phase Ill. The researcher focuses on the long term effects of the intervention including its benefits and side effects. This phase may use the non- experimental, experimental (true or quasi) design with quantitative analysis.

f. Secondary Analysis This involves the use of data gathered in a previous study to test new hypotheses or explore new phenomena or relationships. Secondary data analysis is commonly known as second- hand analysis. It is simply the analysis of pre-existing data in a different way or to answer a different question than what was originally intended.

Secondary data analysis utilizes data that was collected by someone else in order to further a study that the researcher is interested in completing.

Advantages to the secondary data collection method are the following: =It saves time that would otherwise be spent in collecting data = Provides as larger database than what would be possible to collect on ones own

However there are disadvantages to the fact that the researcher cannot personally check the data, so its reliability may be questioned.

DAY 16: DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN STUDY

Descriptive Design/Survey Study

-A study that describe the nature of the phenomenon under investigation after a survey of current trends, practices and conditions that relate to that phenomenon. Descriptive studies involve analysis of an extremely broad range of phenomena, the result of such analysis are a comprehensive presentation and interpretation of statistical tabulations of data yielded by a survey.

Descriptive research answers questions and satisfies curiosity about certain phenomenon. It also describes and elaborates the nature and causes of an existing phenomenon at the time of the study. Moreover, descriptive studies are concerned with existing conditions, their meaning and significance and then making adequate and accurate interpretations of these data with or without the aid of statistics (Calderon, 1993).

Types of Descriptive Studies

1. Descriptive Normative Surveys -Descriptive normative surveys are self-reported data which are collected from samples for purposes of exploring and describing real-life situations. This survey provide an accurate account of the characteristics of that particular situations, individuals or groups of population (Kerlinger, 2000). This method involves the classification and enumeration of collated data which are gathered using the questionnaires.

Surveys are conducted by phone, mail or through personal contact with the subjects. Data collection is mostly done through questionnaires and interviews.

Example:

A survey on staff nurses and administrators to obtain their perception on the extent of staff nurses responsibility for patient education.

1. Correlational Studies - These studies examine the extent of relationship between variables by determining how changes in one variable relate to changes in another variable**. This is also called explanatory research**.

• This type of study is conducted to determine the viability of an undertaking or a business venture and establishing an institution or constructing infrastructure.

Example:

A Feasibility Study on Nursing Entrepreneurship in the Philippines Setting. Credentialing of nurse clinicians and its impact to the nursing profession and the society.

1. Cross-Sectional Designs

• This study is efficient in identifying association of relationships, but may have problems deciding cause and effect. With data at only one point in time, the researcher is then confronted with the classic chicken or egg problem. Cross-sectional designs provide a snapshot of the variables included in the study, at one particular time. It may reveal how those variables are represented in a cross-section of a population. Cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data.

1. Longitudinal Designs

• A Longitudinal design collects data over long periods of time. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods, This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. There are three different types of longitudinal designs: trend studies, panel designs and follow-up studies.

 Trend studies

These refer to investigations in which samples from a population are studied over time with respects to some phenomenon of interest to the researcher. For example, studies on maternal compliance to breastfeeding and Newborn Screening as health care policy.

 Panel Designs

They collect repeated measurements from the same people or subjects over time. Panel studies reveal changes at the individual level. For example, repeated measurement and analysis of variations in health services and practices, causes and effects.

 Follow-up studies

They are usually undertaken to determine the subsequent status of subjects with a specified condition or those who received a specified intervention. For example, follow up on post-natal health care activities and complications arising.

Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research focuses on insights into and understanding of individual perceptions on the phenomenon under study.

Qualitative research attempts to obtain rich, in-depth and valid data which almost always delve into their hidden meanings and are considered to belong to non-experimental type of studies. Qualitative research is considered as "soft science", concerned with the "Subjective" meaning of experiences to an individual. However, it may also be used to enhance the interpretability of quantitative findings.

A bricoleur is a person who is immersed in a study situation and has the expertise in performing qualitative research. A bricoleur can put together a complex array of data derived from a variety of sources and methods called bricolage, ranging from interviewing to observing to interpreting personal and historical data to intensive reflection and introspection (Polit and Beck, 2008).

Types of Qualitative Research

Over the years, the types of qualitative studies have developed rapidly to account for different phenomena. These are phenomenological, ethnographic, grounded theory, historical studies, case studies, field studies, biographies.

Phenomenological Studies

• Phenomenological research was derived from philosophy and psychology which examines the lived experiences of individuals about a phenomenon through description and analysis, such as the stress and anxiety students' feel during examinations. The goal of phenomenological studies is to describe the "lived experiences and lived human relations or being in the world of people", that are of interest to the researcher or to phenomenologist (Denzin, 1989).

Such tradition include:

 Hermeneutics to describe, interpret and explain the lived experiences of people; and  Human ethology which describes the biology of human behaviour as it evolved in its natural context.

Phenomenologist immersed with their study participants and used observational method to explore universal culture and behaviour of people. This is a tool to better understand the social, political and historical background of these experiences. This focuses on the meaning and interpretations of events to people (Creswell, 2003). Phenomenological studies can be descriptive or interpretative.

This study involves the following steps:

 Bracketing

Refers to identifying and holding in abeyance preconceived ideas, beliefs and opinions about the phenomenon under study to limit the researcher's bias of the phenomenon.

 Immersion

Refers to the data collection process on which the researcher "lives" with the data overtime

 Intuiting

The researcher is open to meanings attributed to the phenomenon by those who have experience it.

 Data Reduction

The researcher begins to simplify the large amount of data obtained from interviews and from other sources.

 Analyzing

Etnographic Studies refer to the collection of analysis of data on the lifestyle and daily activities of a culture or a group of people. Such

What is an abstract generalization that explains how concepts are interrelated?

What type of theory systematically explains relationships among phenomena?

Is an abstract generalization that presents a systematic explanation about the interrelationships among phenomena?

Which concept offers an explanation of a phenomenon?