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Under a Creative Commons license Open access AbstractMany biological tissues, such as wood and bone, are fiber composites with a hierarchical structure. Their exceptional mechanical properties are believed to be due to a functional adaptation of the structure at all levels of hierarchy. This article reviews the basic principles involved in designing hierarchical biological materials, such as cellular and composite architectures, adapative growth and as well as remodeling. Some examples that are found to utilize these strategies include wood, bone, tendon, and glass sponges – all of which are discussed. Cited by (0)Copyright © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. Abstract This research tests Williamson's M-form hypothesis which posits an information imperative of organizational form instead of a technology imperative. The experimental design is a two-by-two factorial design. Two levels of decomposability of technology are the values for the first variable. The multidivisional form (M-form) and the unitary (U-form) are the values for the second variable. The data are generated from a perturbed decomposed mathematical programming model that is coordinated by a Dantzig-Wolfe pricing approach. The data are analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric approach. The results substantiate Williamson's hypothesis that the M-form of organization is superior to the U-form organization alternative. For each of the two levels of decomposability of technology, the M-form of organization yields higher profit solutions than the U-form. Journal Information Founded in 1956 by James Thompson, the Administrative Science Quarterly is a peer-reviewed, interdisciplinary journal publishing theoretical and empirical work that advances the study of organizational behavior and theory. ASQ publishes articles that contribute to organization theory from a number of disciplines, including organizational behavior and theory, sociology, psychology and social psychology, strategic management, economics, public administration, and industrial relations. ASQ publishes both qualitative and quantitative work, as well as purely theoretical papers. Theoretical perspectives and topics in ASQ range from micro to macro, from lab experiments in psychology to work on nation-states. An occasional feature is the "ASQ Forum," an essay on a special topic with invited commentaries. Thoughtful reviews of books relevant to organization studies and management theory are a regular feature. Special issues have explored qualitative methods, organizational culture, the utilization of organizational research, the distribution of rewards in organizations, and critical perspectives on organizational control. Publisher Information Sara Miller McCune founded SAGE Publishing in 1965 to support the dissemination of usable knowledge and educate a global community. SAGE is a leading international provider of innovative, high-quality content publishing more than 900 journals and over 800 new books each year, spanning a wide range of subject areas. A growing selection of library products includes archives, data, case studies and video. SAGE remains majority owned by our founder and after her lifetime will become owned by a charitable trust that secures the company’s continued independence. Principal offices are located in Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore, Washington DC and Melbourne. www.sagepublishing.com Functional StructureAn organization with a functional structure is divided based on functional areas, such as IT, finance, or marketing. Learning Objectives Explain the functional structure within the larger context of organizational structures in general Key TakeawaysKey Points
Key Terms
Overview of the Functional StructureAn organization can be arranged according to a variety of structures, which determine how the organization will operate and perform. In a functional structure, a common configuration, an organization is divided into smaller groups by areas of specialty (such as IT, finance, operations, and marketing). Some refer to these functional areas as " silos "—entities that are vertical and disconnected from each other. Correspondingly, the company's top management team typically consists of several functional heads (such as the chief financial officer and the chief operating officer). Communication generally occurs within each functional department and is transmitted across departments through the department heads. Functional structure at FedEx: This organizational chart shows a broad functional structure at FedEx. Each different functions (e.g., HR, finance, marketing) is managed from the top down via functional heads (the CFO, the CIO, various VPs, etc.). Advantages of a Functional StructureFunctional departments arguably permit greater operational efficiency because employees with shared skills and knowledge are grouped together by functions performed. Each group of specialists can therefore operate independently with management acting as the point of cross-communication between functional areas. This arrangement allows for increased specialization. Disadvantages of a Functional Structure A disadvantage of this structure is that the different functional groups may not communicate with one another, potentially decreasing flexibility and innovation. Functional structures may also be susceptible to tunnel vision, with each function perceiving the organization only from within the frame of its own operation.
Recent trends that aim to combat these disadvantages include the use of teams that cross traditional departmental lines and the promotion of cross-functional communication. Divisional StructureDivisional structures group various organizational functions into product or regional divisions. Learning Objectives Describe the basic premise behind divisional structures within the general framework of organizational structure Key TakeawaysKey Points
Key Terms
Divisional Structure OverviewOrganizations can be structured in various ways, with each structure determining the manner in which the organization operates and performs. A divisional organization groups each organizational function into a division. U.S. Department of Energy organization chart: The DOE organization chart shows a divisional structure with different divisions under each of three under-secretaries for energy. Each of the three division is in charge of a different set of tasks: environmental responsibilities, nuclear-energy responsibilities, or research responsibilities. Divisional StrategiesEach division within this structure can correspond to either products or geographies of the organization. Each division contains all the necessary resources and functions within it to support that particular product line or geography (for example, its own finance, IT, and marketing departments). Product and geographic divisional structures may be characterized as follows:
A common legal structure known as the multidivisional form (or "M-form") also uses the divisional structure. In this form, one parent company owns subsidiary companies, each of which uses its brand and name. The whole organization is ultimately controlled by central management; however, most decisions are left to autonomous divisions. This business structure is typically found in companies that operate worldwide—for example, Virgin Group is the parent company of Virgin Mobile and Virgin Records. Advantages of a Divisional StructureAs with all organizational structure types, the divisional structure offers distinct advantages and disadvantages. Generally speaking, divisions work best for companies with wide variance in product offerings or regions of geographic operation. The divisional structure can be useful because it affords the company greater operational flexibility. In addition, the failure of one division does not directly threaten the other divisions. In the multidivisional structure, subsidiaries benefit from the use of the brand and capital of the parent company. Disadvantages of a Divisional Structure Some disadvantages of this structure include operational inefficiencies from separating specialized functions—for example, finance personnel in one division do not communicate with those in another division. Disadvantages of the multidivisional structure can include increased accounting and tax implications. Matrix StructureThe matrix structure is a type of organizational structure in which individuals are grouped via two operational frames. Learning Objectives Illustrate the way two different operational perspectives can be crossed in a matrix structure to organize a company Key TakeawaysKey Points
Key Terms
Overview of the Matrix StructureOrganizations can be structured in various ways, and the structure of an organization determines how it operates and performs. The matrix structure is a type of organizational structure in which individuals are grouped by two different operational perspectives simultaneously; this structure has both advantages and disadvantages but is generally best employed by companies large enough to justify the increased complexity. Matrix organizational structure: In a matrix structure, the organization is grouped by both product and function. Product lines are managed horizontally and functions are managed vertically. This means that each function—e.g., research, production, sales, and finance—has separate internal divisions for each product. In matrix management, the organization is grouped by any two perspectives the company deems most appropriate. Common organizational perspectives include function and product, function and region, or region and product. In an organization grouped by function and product, for example, each product line will have management that corresponds to each function. If the organization has three functions and three products, the matrix structure will have nine ( 3×33 \times 3 ) potential managerial interactions. This example illustrates how inherently complex matrix structures are in comparison to other, more linear structures. Advantages of a Matrix StructureProponents of matrix management suggest that this structure allows team members to share information more readily across task boundaries, countering the "silo" critique of functional management. Matrix structures also allow for specialization that can both increase depth of knowledge and assign individuals according to project needs. Disadvantages of a Matrix Structure A disadvantage of the matrix structure is the increased complexity in the chain of command when employees are assigned to both functional and
project managers. This increase in complexity can result in a higher manager-to-worker ratio, which can in turn increase costs or lead to conflicting employee loyalties. It can also create a gridlock in decision making if a manager on one end of the matrix disagrees with another manager. Blurred authority in a matrix structure can result in reduced agility in decision making and conflict resolution. Team-Based StructureThe team structure is a newer, less hierarchical organizational structure in which individuals are grouped into teams. Learning Objectives Classify team-based structures within the larger context of the most common organizational structures Key TakeawaysKey Points
Key Terms
Overview of the Team-Based Structure Organizations can be
structured in various ways, and the structure of an organization determines how it operates and performs. The team structure in large organizations is considered a newer type of organization that is less hierarchical, less structured, and more fluid than traditional structures (such as functional or divisional). A team is a group of employees—ideally with complementary skills and synergistic efforts—working toward a common goal. Teams are created by grouping employees in a way that generates a
variety of expertise and addresses a specific operational component of an organization. These teams can change and adapt to fulfill group and organizational objectives. Integration with Other Structures One aspect of team-based structures that will likely persist indefinitely is the integration of team cultures within an broader structure (e.g., a functional structure with teams interspersed). Such integration allows for the authority and organization of a more concrete structure while at the same time capturing the cross-functional and projected-oriented advantages of teams. Network StructureIn the network structure, managers coordinate and control relationships with the firm that are both internal and external. Learning Objectives Identify the structural implications of a network-based organizational design Key TakeawaysKey Points
Key Terms
Overview of the Network Structure An organization can be structured in various ways that determine how it operates and performs. The network structure is a newer type of organizational structure often viewed as less hierarchical (i.e., more flat), more decentralized, and more flexible than other structures. In this structure, managers coordinate and control relations that are both internal and external to the firm. Advantages of a Network StructureProponents argue that the network structure is more agile compared to other structures (such as functional areas, divisions, or even some teams). Communication is less siloed and flows freely, possibly opening up more opportunities for innovation. Because the network structure is decentralized, it has fewer tiers in its organizational makeup, a wider span of control, and a bottom-up flow of decision making and ideas. Disadvantages of a Network Structure On the other hand, this more fluid structure can lead to a more complex set of
relationships in the organization. For example, lines of accountability may be less clear, and reliance on external vendors can be quite high. These potentially unpredictable variables essentially reduce the core company's control over its operational success. Modular StructureIn the modular structure, an organization focuses on developing specialized and relatively autonomous strategic business units. Learning Objectives Define the nature
and value of a modular structure in an organizational framework Key TakeawaysKey Points
Key Terms
Overview of the Modular Structure Organizations can be structured in various ways that determine how the organization operates and performs. The modular structure focuses on dividing the business into small, tightly knit strategic business units (SBUs), which focus on specific elements of the organizational process. Interdependence among the units is limited because the focus of many SBUs is more inward than outward and because loyalty within SBUs tends to be very strong. Modular organizations: A modular organization involves several largely independent bodies that can rearrange and work with different other departments as needed. This image shows the GNU health module interacting with many different departments, such as oncology, radiology, surgery and pediatrics, across many contexts, such as location and socioeconomic status. Advantages of a Modular StructureOne advantage of the modular structure is that loosely coupled structures can enable organizations to be more flexible and restructure more easily. For example, a firm can switch between different providers and thus respond more quickly to different market needs. An organization can also fill its own corporate needs internally by creating a new modular department, which can operate interdependently with the whole. Disadvantages of a Modular Structure On the other hand, more internalization and more tightly coupled structures can produce better communication and intellectual property gains. As a result, critics of the modular
organization argue that a firm's modularity should be limited to the extent that its flexible nature affords gains. Various degrees of modularity are possible but not necessarily useful if the pros do not outweigh the cons. Managers must carefully consider whether or not a modular structure would be useful, either entirely or partially, for a given organization. Licenses and AttributionsCC licensed content, Shared previously
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What are the 4 types of organizational structures?The four types of organizational structures are functional, multi-divisional, flat, and matrix structures. Others include circular, team-based, and network structures.
When an organization has a divisional structure it is divided into?5. Divisional structure. In a divisional structure, organizations are split into divisions based on specific products, services or geographies. For this reason, this structure is typically used by large companies that operate in wide geographic areas or own separate, smaller companies.
What is divisional structure of organisation?Divisional organisation structure in which various departments are created on the basis of products, territory or region, is called a divisional structure. Each unit has a divisional manager, who is responsible for performance and has authority over their division.
What is functional structure of organisation?A functional organizational structure is a business structure that groups employees by specialty, skill or related roles. It is based on levels of hierarchy that include different departments, under the direction of designated leaders.
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