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The Psychology of Fake NewsUnder a Creative Commons license
Open access
Highlights
Recent evidence contradicts the common narrative that partisanship and politically motivated reasoning explain why people fall for 'fake news'.
Poor truth discernment is linked to a lack of careful reasoning and relevant knowledge, as well as to the use of familiarity and source heuristics.
There is also a large disconnect between what people believe and what they will share on social media, and this is largely driven by inattention rather than by purposeful sharing of misinformation.
Effective interventions can nudge social media users to think about accuracy, and can leverage crowdsourced veracity ratings to improve social media ranking algorithms.
We synthesize a burgeoning literature investigating why people believe and share false or highly misleading news online. Contrary to a common narrative whereby politics drives susceptibility to fake news, people are ‘better’ at discerning truth from falsehood (despite greater overall belief) when evaluating politically concordant news. Instead, poor truth discernment is associated with lack of careful reasoning and relevant knowledge, and the use of heuristics such as familiarity. Furthermore, there is a substantial disconnect between what people believe and what they share on social media. This dissociation is largely driven by inattention, more so than by purposeful sharing of misinformation. Thus, interventions can successfully nudge social media users to focus more on accuracy. Crowdsourced veracity ratings can also be leveraged to improve social media ranking algorithms.
Keywords
fake news
misinformation
social media
news media
motivated reasoning
dual process theory
crowdsourcing
attention
information sharing
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© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Delivering bad news gracefully and clearly is an important skill for business professionals. How you deliver bad news reflects on you as a communicator and on the business you may represent. As with all business writing, audience awareness is of paramount importance when delivering bad news. The following guidelines will help you to deliver bad news in ways that are clear, informative, and respectful of your audiences.
- Treat your audience with dignity-- Remember that you are writing to human beings—businesses that forget about empathy when communicating bad news do so to their own detriment.
- Put yourself into your audience’s shoes -- how would you react to this sort of news? Also, consider what information is relevant to them and be sure to provide it.
- Deliver news clearly -- Although at times you may need to “buffer” your message (see below), readers need to easily find and understand the news.
Readers need to know the message is important for them to read. Avoid burying the news late in the message, since that could cause them to skip over it.
Cushion or buffer the bad news, while retaining clarity
Business audiences expect directness and candor, but most audiences do not like a sudden shock. Many business writers employ buffering techniques to soften the blow of bad news, such as beginning with relevant background information to prepare the reader for the news to come. Such buffers should not hide or obscure the negative message, however.
- Avoid putting your audience on the defensive. When describing something the audience has (or may have) done to cause the problem you are addressing, use passive verbs and impersonal expressions—avoid using you to keep the reader from feeling singled out or to keep from assigning blame. While business writing experts often urge writers to avoid passive voice, in such cases it can be the most rhetorically effective choice.
- You may want to use passive voice and impersonal expressions as a cushioning device when delivering bad news to large groups or to individuals who you do not want to put on the defensive. However, as with other buffering techniques, bad news you deliver in this way should not lose its clarity.
- Avoid hiding behind euphemisms. Although writers may want to buffer or cushion bad news, the use of euphemisms can mislead readers, or give the impression the author is trying to avoid the issue (and so may not be reliable or trustworthy).
Justify and/or explain
Audiences will want to know the details behind or rationale for bad news. Share relevant facts and reasons that your audience will need to understand and come to terms with the negative message. Being forthright can help maintain good will with readers, whereas keeping them in the dark can cause distrust or confusion. In the case of a refusal, for example, a clear rationale may help your audience to accept the decision and to feel that they would have made the same decision.
Avoid simply quoting company policy as a rationale for a refusal; rather, give the rationale behind the policy. Hiding behind policy gives audiences the impression they are dealing with an uncaring bureaucracy and certainly does not generate good will.
Present positives
When possible, point out the good that can come from a situation; however, be sure to avoid seeming disingenuous. A letter of dismissal that presents as a positive all the extra free time the recipient will now have to spend with family will likely create more antagonism than good will.
Offer solutions or alternatives
Recipients of bad news will often want to know how a problem might be solved. If the office parking lot will be closed for repairs to a water main, where should employees park? If your company no longer carries a particular product, can you suggest an alternative? If an error or crisis has occurred that you have the authority for correcting, letting your audience know what you are doing to correct the problem not only makes bad news less bleak, but also can protect your credibility.
Keep your audience in the loop
While some communications—such as a refusal of a request or declining a job applicant—may only require a single communication, others may need ongoing attention. If you have just revealed a reporting error to your boss or board, they will expect to be kept updated about further developments resulting from the error and actions taken to correct the problem.
Consider your multiple audiences
Written communications all have the potential of reaching more than the audience addressed. Something you write to one client may reach others or news sources.
Modified from:
- Bies, R.
(2012, May 5). The 10 commandments for delivering bad news. Forbes. Retrieved from //www.forbes.com/sites/forbesleadershipforum/2012/05/30/10-commandments-for-delivering-bad-news/
- Lange, M. (2006, March 16). Letting them down gently. Accountancy Age. Retrieved from //www.vnubme.com
- Locker, K.O., & Kienzler, D.S. (2013). Business and administrative communication (10th ed). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
- Nordquist,
R. (n.d.). Bad-news message. About.com: Grammar & Composition. Retrieved from //grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/Bad-News-Message.htm
Howe Writing Initiative ‧ Farmer School of Business ‧ Miami University
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