You’ve almost certainly heard of Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis, but if you’re like most people, you’re not really sure what psychoanalysis is. Show
You might also wonder how psychoanalysis differs from other forms of talk therapy, and how the theories behind psychoanalysis and other forms of talk therapy differ. In this piece, we’ll give a brief but comprehensive overview of psychoanalytic theory and practice, the impact of psychoanalysis on other disciplines and areas, and its most common critiques. So, let’s dive in and learn about Freud, his theories on human behavior and personality (some of which may seem kooky), and his role in the creation and popularization of talk therapy. Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our 3 Positive Psychology Exercises for free. These science-based exercises will explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology including strengths, values and self-compassion and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students or employees. This Article Contains:
What is Psychoanalysis? A Definition and History of Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalysis is a type of therapy that aims to release pent-up or repressed emotions and memories in or to lead the client to catharsis, or healing (McLeod, 2014). In other words, the goal of psychoanalysis is to bring what exists at the unconscious or subconscious level up to consciousness. This goal is accomplished through talking to another person about the big questions in life, the things that matter, and diving into the complexities that lie beneath the simple-seeming surface. The Founder of Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud and His ConceptsIt’s very likely you’ve heard of the influential but controversial founder of psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud. Freud was born in Austria and spent most of his childhood and adult life in Vienna (Sigmund Freud Biography, 2017). He entered medical school and trained to become a neurologist, earning a medical degree in 1881. Soon after his graduation, he set up a private practice and began treating patients with psychological disorders. His attention was captured by a colleague’s intriguing experience with a patient; the colleague was Dr. Josef Breuer and his patient was the famous “Anna O.,” who suffered from physical symptoms with no apparent physical cause. Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms abated when he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed, or hidden from her conscious mind. This case sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind and spurred the development of some of his most influential ideas. Models of the MindPerhaps the most impactful idea put forth by Freud was his model of the human mind. His model divides the mind into three layers, or regions:
Later, Freud posited a more structured model of the mind, one that can coexist with his original ideas about consciousness and unconsciousness. In this model, there are three metaphorical parts to the mind:
The image above offers a context of this “iceberg” model wherein much of our mind exists in the realm of the unconscious impulses and drives. If you’ve ever read the book “Lord of the Flies” by William Golding, then you have enjoyed the allegory of Freud’s mind as personified by Jack as the Id, Piggy as the ego, and Ralph as the superego. Defense MechanismsFreud believed these three parts of the mind are in constant conflict because each part has a different primary goal. Sometimes, when the conflict is too much for a person to handle, his or her ego may engage in one or many defense mechanisms to protect the individual. These defense mechanisms include:
The 5 Psychosexual Stages of DevelopmentFinally, one of the most enduring concepts associated with Freud is his psychosexual stages. Freud proposed that children develop in five distinct stages, each focused on a different source of pleasure:
Freud hypothesized that an individual must successfully complete each stage to become a psychologically healthy adult with a fully formed ego and superego. Otherwise, individuals may become stuck or “fixated” in a particular stage, causing emotional and behavioral problems in adulthood (McLeod, 2013). The Interpretation of DreamsAnother well-known concept from Freud was his belief in the significance of dreams. He believed that analyzing one’s dreams can give valuable insight into the unconscious mind. In 1900, Freud published the book The Interpretation of Dreams in which he outlined his hypothesis that the primary purpose of dreams was to provide individuals with wish fulfillment, allowing them to work through some of their repressed issues in a situation free from consciousness and the constraints of reality (Sigmund Freud Biography, n.d.). In this book, he also distinguished between the manifest content (the actual dream) and the latent content (the true or hidden meaning behind the dream). The purpose of dreams is to translate forbidden wishes and taboo desires into a non-threatening form through condensation (the joining of two or more ideas), displacement (transformation of the person or object we are concerned about into something or someone else), and secondary elaboration (the unconscious process of turning the wish-fulfillment images or events into a logical narrative) (McLeod, 2013). Freud’s ideas about dreams were game-changing. Before Freud, dreams were considered insignificant and insensible ramblings of the mind at rest. His book provoked a new level of interest in dreams, an interest that continues to this day. Jungian Psychology: Carl JungFreud’s work was continued, although in altered form, by his student Carl Jung, whose particular brand of psychology is known as analytical psychology. Jung’s work formed the basis for most modern psychological theories and concepts. Jung and Freud shared an interest in the unconscious and worked together in their early days, but a few key disagreements ended their partnership and allowed Jung to fully devote his attention to his new psychoanalytic theory. The three main differences between Freudian psychology and Jungian (or analytical) psychology are related to:
Lacanian Psychoanalysis: Jacques LacanIn the mid to late 1900s, the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan called for a return to Freud’s work, but with a renewed focus on the unconscious and greater attention paid to language. Lacan drew heavily from his knowledge of linguistics and believed that language was a much more important piece of the developmental puzzle than Freud assumed. There are three key concepts of Lacanian psychoanalysis that set it apart from Freud’s original talk therapy:
The RealWhile Freud saw the symbolic as being indicative of a person’s unconscious mind, particularly in dreams, Lacan theorized that “the real” is actually the most foundational level of the human mind. According to Lacan, we exist in “the real” and experience anxiety because we cannot control it. Unlike the symbolic, which Freud proposed could be accessed through psychoanalysis, the real cannot be accessed. Once we learn and understand language, we are severed completely from the real. He describes it as the state of nature, in which there exists nothing but a need for food, sex, safety, etc. (The Real, 2002). Symbolic OrderLacan’s symbolic order is one of three orders that concepts, ideas, thoughts, and feelings can be placed into. Our desires and emotions live in the symbolic order, and this is where they are interpreted, if possible. Concepts like death and absence may be integrated into the symbolic order because we have at least some sense of understanding of them, but they may not be interpreted fully. Once we learn a language, we move from the real to the symbolic order and are unable to move back to the real. The real and the symbolic are two of the three orders that live in tension with one another, the third being the imaginary order (Symbolic Order, 2002). Mirror StageLacan proposed that there is an important stage of development not covered by Freud called the “mirror stage.” This aptly named stage is initiated when infants look into a mirror at their own image. Most infants become fascinated with the image they see in the mirror, and may even try to interact with it. But eventually, they realize that the image they are seeing is of themselves. Once they realize this key fact, they incorporate what they see into their sense of “I,” or sense of self. At this young stage, the image they see may not correspond to their inner understanding of their physical self, in which case the image becomes an ideal that they strive for as they develop (Hewitson, 2010). The Approach: Psychoanalytic PerspectiveIn the psychoanalytic approach, the focus is on the unconscious mind rather than the conscious mind. It is built on the foundational idea that your behavior is determined by experiences from your past that are lodged in your unconscious mind. While the focus on sex has lessened over the decades since psychoanalysis was founded, psychology and talk therapy still place a big emphasis on one’s early childhood experiences (Psychoanalytic Perspective, n.d.). Methods and TechniquesA psychoanalyst can use many different techniques, but there are four basic components that comprise modern psychoanalysis:
1. InterpretationInterpretation is the verbal communication between analysts and clients in which analysts discuss their hypotheses of their clients’ unconscious conflicts. Generally, analysts will help clients see the defensive mechanisms they are using and the context of the defensive mechanisms, or the impulsive relationship against which the mechanism was developed, and finally the client’s motivation for this mechanism (Kernberg, 2016). There are three classifications of interpretation:
2. Transference AnalysisTransference is the term for the unconscious repetition in the “here and now” of conflicts from the client’s past. Transference analysis refers to “the systematic analysis of the transference implications of the patient’s total verbal and nonverbal manifestations in the hours as well as the c patient’s direct and implicit communicative efforts to influence the analyst in a certain direction” (Kernberg, 2016). This analysis of the patient’s transference is an essential component of psychoanalysis and is the main driver of change in treatment. In transference analysis, the analyst takes note of all communication, both verbal and nonverbal, the client engages in and puts together a theory on what led to the defensive mechanisms he or she displays. That theory forms the basis for any attempts to change the behavior or character of the client. 3. Technical NeutralityAnother vital piece of psychoanalysis is what is known as technical neutrality, or the commitment of the analyst to remain neutral and avoid taking sides in the client’s internal conflicts; the analyst strives to remain at an equal distance from the client’s id, ego, and superego, and from the client’s external reality. Additionally, technical neutrality demands that the analyst refrains from imposing his or her value systems upon the client (Kernberg, 2016). Technical neutrality is sometimes considered indifference or disinterest in the client, but that is not the goal; rather, analysts aim to serve as a mirror for their clients, reflecting clients’ own characteristics, assumptions, and behaviors back at them to aid in their understanding of themselves. 4. Countertransference AnalysisThis final key component of psychoanalysis is the analysis of countertransference, the analyst’s reactions to clients and the material they present in sessions. According to Kernberg:
Countertransference analysis can be generally understood as the analyst’s attempts to analyze their own reactions to the client, whatever form they take. To engage in psychoanalytic treatment, the analyst must see the client objectively and understand the transference happening in the client and in their own experience. Transference and Other Forms of Resistance in PsychoanalysisSpeaking of transference, it is one of the many forms of resistance considered in psychoanalysis. In psychoanalytic theory, resistance has a specific meaning: the blocking of memories from consciousness by the client (Fournier, 2018). Resistance is the client’s general unwillingness to change their behavior and engage in growth through therapy. This resistance can develop by myriad reasons, some conscious and some unconscious, and can even be present in those who want to change.
It frequently occurs in treatment in the form of transference onto the therapist, in which the client applies their feelings and expectations toward another person onto the therapist. There are many different types of transference, but the most common include:
Transference is not necessarily harmful but may be a form of client resistance to treatment. If the client is projecting inappropriate or unrealistic expectations onto the therapist, he or she may not be entirely open to the change that treatment can provoke. Resistance to treatment can also be understood in a more general, non-psychoanalytic manner. After all, resistance to treatment is not an uncommon occurrence. Examples of ways in which a client may resist change in treatment include:
On the Couch: Why You Lie Down During TreatmentAlthough it has frequently been used in satire and cartoons to poke fun at psychoanalysis, there are some good reasons why the couch is an important aspect of the psychoanalytic treatment experience. Dr. Harvey Schwartz explains that having the client lie on the couch instead of sitting face-to-face with the analyst frees both participants from the social constraints established by looking at one another:
Further, Schwartz notes these important points regarding the couch:
While the couch isn’t necessary for patients in psychoanalysis, it is recommended and encouraged for optimal results. Psychoanalysis Test: The Freudian Personality TestIf you’re interested in taking a quick and easy test to determine whether you are stuck, or fixated, at a stage of development, you can find one here. It presents 21 items that may or may not describe your personality, and you decide how well it describes you, generally on a scale from Very Inaccurate to Very Accurate. Although you will need to visit a psychoanalyst if you want a more valid and reliable diagnosis, this test can give you an idea of where your personality lies. However, please note that you will need to make an account with Psychologist World to obtain your results. For a test with free access to your results, check out this Freudian Personality Style Test from the Individual Differences Research Labs. This test is composed of 48 items rated on a 5-point scale from Disagree to Agree. Your results are in the form of scores ranging from 0% to 100% on eight personality styles:
You can find this test here. Psychodynamic vs. Psychoanalytic TheoryWith all of the theories and disciplines sporting the “psycho” prefix, it’s easy to get them confused. Psychodynamic theory and psychoanalytic theory have quite a bit in common; in fact, psychoanalytic theory is a sub-theory of psychodynamic theory. “Psychodynamic” refers to all psychological theories of human functioning and personality and can be traced back to Freud’s original formulation of psychoanalysis.
Given the relationship between the two theories, there are several core ideas and assumptions that they have in common, including:
Psychoanalysis vs. PsychotherapySo, given the difference between the two “psycho-” theories above, what is the difference between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy? The main distinctions between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy lie in both the goals of the treatment and the methods used to achieve those goals. Psychotherapy is a type of “talk therapy” that is offered as a treatment for a wide range of ailments and mental disorders. The goal is to solve a problem and/or address symptoms that are affecting the client’s quality of life, and there are many ways to go about working to reach this goal. Those methods vary depending on the type of psychotherapy in question. Some of the most common types include:
Psychoanalysis also falls within this list of common types of psychotherapy, but it has a more specific goal: helping the client (or patient) overcome the desires and negative influences of his or her unconscious mind. The techniques used in psychoanalysis differ from most other types of psychotherapy, demonstrated by the stereotypical image of psychoanalysis of the client reclining on a couch facing away from the therapist (or analyst) while discussing his or her past. Psychotherapy can be undertaken with a variety of length and duration combinations, from once a month to several times a week. On the other hand, psychoanalysis is almost always applied in an intensive manner, often requiring three to five sessions a week for several years (Lee, 2010). A Psychoanalyst vs. a Psychotherapist: Is There a difference?In case the descriptions above didn’t make it clear, there is certainly a difference between a psychoanalyst and a psychotherapist. A psychoanalyst has a particular set of skills gained from specific psychoanalysis training. While psychotherapists may practice multiple types of therapy (although they often specialize in a certain type of therapy or in treating a particular mental health issue), psychoanalysts generally stick to practicing only psychoanalysis. However, the two professions both focus on helping people via talk therapy, and both use their skills to help their clients gain insight about themselves, address their mental and emotional issues, and heal. In fact, a psychoanalyst is often considered to be a type of psychotherapist, just one who specializes in psychoanalysis. With that in mind, every psychoanalyst is also a psychotherapist, but not every psychotherapist is a psychoanalyst. Popular Books on PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis has been around for more than 100 years and has generated plenty of debate—much of it heated. Unsurprisingly, given how long it has been practiced, there are many, many books available on the subject. Some of the most popular and well-reviewed books on psychoanalysis are listed here:
Psychoanalysis in Art and LiteratureDue to psychoanalysis’s tenure as an influential theory and form of therapy, it’s had a sizable presence in art, literature, and films. If self-help books tend not to thrill you, you might find some interesting works on psychoanalysis in other places. For a fascinating look at how art has been influenced by psychoanalysis, check out Laurie Schneider Adams’s book Art and Psychoanalysis. For a briefer look at the interaction between the two, you can find a good, concise overview through Ivy Roberts’s online lesson titled “The Impact of Psychoanalysis on Art.” Psychoanalysis has also left its mark on literature, both by inspiring works of fiction that incorporate aspects of psychoanalysis and/or psychoanalytic theory and by serving as the basis for psychoanalytic literary criticism, in which literature is critiqued through the lens of psychoanalytic theory. For a brief overview of the effects of psychoanalysis on literature, check out Susan van Zyl’s article “Psychoanalysis and Literature: An Introduction” by clicking here. At the Movies: 15 Films Influenced by PsychoanalysisThe impact of psychoanalysis on movies is perhaps even more salient than its impact on art and literature. The list below is just a sampling of the many films inspired and/or influenced by psychoanalysis:
To read more about how psychoanalysis ties into each of these movies, see Bryan Norton’s article on the subject here. Criticisms of Psychoanalytic TherapyAlthough psychoanalytic theory laid the foundations for much of modern psychology, it is not without its flaws. Psychoanalysis is still practiced today, and psychoanalytic theory has been updated to fall more in line with current knowledge about human behavior and the brain, but there are many criticisms of the theory and its applications. The major criticisms are:
Given these many valid criticisms of psychoanalytic theory, it is probably wise to approach Freud and his theories with a grain of salt. Although his work formed the basis for modern psychology, that basis was lacking in empiricism and falsifiability, and his students and followers bore the larger burden of providing evidence to back the resulting psychological theories. A Take-Home MessageEven though psychoanalysis is less prevalent in the treatment of mental health issues today than it was in the early 1900s, it is important to learn about the theories since they had a giant and lasting impact on the field of psychology. Sigmund Freud is not valued today as a top-notch employer of scientifically-backed methods, and for good reason; however, his work does provide key insight. What do you think about psychoanalysis and the theory behind it? Does any of it ring true for you personally? Have you ever tried psychoanalysis, as a patient or as an analyst? We want to hear about your experiences. Leave us a comment and weigh in on this controversial topic. We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our 3 Positive Psychology Exercises for free.
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