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Terms in this set (243)

Compliance is another reason to manage loss. Compliance may be:

Government-directed
Part of the organization's safety requirements
Related to a particular process, system, or work operation

Question 1
How many elements (or sections) are there in a well-defined occupational health and safety management system?

The number varies but would generally include sections related to management commitment, worksite hazard analysis and control and employee training.

Question 2
Indicate if the statement is true or false: "In business in general the losses may include loss due to theft, spoilage, equipment outage or product damage"

t

Question 3
What are the basics of a health and safety program?

Recognizing the potential for loss, evaluating the risks and the potential for loss, reviewing the options for eliminating or otherwise controlling the exposure to the loss.

Due diligence may be proven if "there was a proper system in place to prevent an offence from happening and that reasonable steps were taken to ensure the effective operation of the system."
This figure below illustrates a more detailed system consisting of 20 program elements. These elements (when completed properly) have been repeatedly proven to achieve optimum results—not only for loss control but also for quality, environmental, production, and cost control.

Question 1
Select all that apply. The main goal for management with respect to health and safety is which of the following:

Maintain compliance with respect to organizational requirements
Maintain compliance with respect to a particular process, system or work operation
Maintain compliance and avoiding government orders or prosecution

Question 3
Select all that apply. Accidents occur because of which of the following:

Unsafe practices (human errors or decisions to err)
Unsafe conditions (or situational aspects of the work place)
Environmental issues (environmental aspects)

The image below indicates the roles and responsibilities required in the health and safety management system.

ISMEC stands for?

Identification of work
Standards - establishing them for the work
Measuring performance or compliance to the standards
Evaluation performance
Commending or correcting with a feedback loop to ensure continuous improvement

Generally in occupational health and safety programs the Plan-Do-Check-Act process is followed in these incidences:

When starting a new improvement project
As part of the design and development of a process, product or service
In developing any repetitive work process
When undertaking a data collection and analysis process used to verify and prioritize root causes to problems
When changes must be implemented

t or f
It is essential that any occupational health and safety management system incorporate PDCA to ensure continuous improvement and the ongoing vigilance necessary to prevent workplace accidents and incidents.

t

OHSAS 18000 is based on British Standard 8800 (BS 8800) and is an international occupational health and safety management system specification.

Question 1
In the European (British) system what is the name of the commonly used continuous improvement process?

OHSAS 18000

Question 2
The managerial control system ISMEC is very useful for designing and continuously improving an occupational health and safety management system.What does the "I" in ISMEC stand for?

Identification of the work to be completed

The standard is continuous improvement or a cycle that never ends as depicted in the image below. (Source: OHSAS 18000).

Question 1
If a small incident in a warehouse causes damage to some stock worth $500 and little else, what is a good estimate of the total cost of this incident?

Up to $25,000

There are a number of tools used inside a health and safety management system to provide the necessary feedback loop such as:

• Workplace inspections
• OHS management systems audits
• Incident and accident investigation Proper implementation and completion of these too

Question 11 / 1 point
Which of the following correctly describes the system companies put in place to manage the operational risks associated with workplace health and safety?
Occupational health and safety management plan
Occupational health and safety management system
Occupational health and safety program

Any of the above three terms would be correct

Question 21 / 1 point
Which is considered to be the critical step in designing and organizing a health and safety program?

Establishing program objectives

Question 31 / 1 point
What is the key feature of ISMEC as a model for health and safety management systems?

It includes a feedback loop to ensure continuous improvement of the health and safety management system.

Question 41 / 1 point
Who should sign the organizational occupational health and safety policy document?

The Chief Executive Officer

Question 51 / 1 point
What are the main causes of occupational hazards?

human errors and situational and environmental aspects

Question 60 / 1 point
Who is responsible for developing health and safety policy and the systems that support it?

Company President

Question 71 / 1 point
The Plan-Do-Check-Act process is fundamental to the continuous improvement cycle. What are the key activities to do under "Act"?

Management review and continual improvement

Question 81 / 1 point
What does the British OHSAS 18000 call continual improvement?

Action for improvement

Question 91 / 1 point
If a workplace incident has injury and illness costs of $1000 what would be a good estimate of the total cost of the incident according to the iceberg theory?

$6,000-$53,000

Question 101 / 1 point
Which element of the health and safety program is not part of the feedback system?

Training

Definition of Incident

An undesired event that may cause personal harm or other damage or had the potential to have caused personal harm or other damage.

the term incident can be further described as follows:

No loss incident
Equipment damage incident
Lost-time incident
Environmental damage incident
Fatal incident

Question 1
What is the best definition of the term "near-miss"?

An undesired event that could have caused personal harm or other damage.

Question 1
What are the three key steps in an accident investigation?

Data collection, data analysis, and corrective action

Question 2
Incident investigations can be time consuming and expensive. What is the purpose of completing incident investigations?

To determine what management system failed to allow it to happen so that it can be prevented from re-occurring

Question 1
Put the steps in the correct order.

Report occurrence.
Examine scene for evidence and interview witnesses.
Study evidence and determine causes.
Reconstruct the event if necessary.
Review basic causes.
Report findings and recommendations.
Implement controls or system changes.

t is common to use fishbone diagrams to identify potential factors causing a workplace incident or accident.

Ultimately, the goal of applying the 5-Why's method is to determine a root cause of a defect or problem.

Question 1
Which of the following are established accident investigation tools available for use?

Fishbone, 5 Whys, Taproot, Failure modes and effect analysis and MORT analysis

Question 1
Who should be members of the accident investigation team?

A worker involved in the accident, the area supervisor and the management team member under the general direction and guidance of a trained investigator

Question 2
Investigators bring their bias about the causes of accidents into every investigation. How can bias be managed and minimized?
Question 2 options:

Separate the accident investigation process into three distinct steps: data collection, data analysis and corrective actions. Knowing that analysis is not the investigator's job will help to minimize bias.

Question 11 / 1 point
What is the best definition of an incident?

An incident is defined as an unwanted and unplanned event that may result in equipment damage and/or injury.

uestion 21 / 1 point
What is the typical outcome of an incident investigation?

A set of recommendations for the management system or systems that allowed the incident to occur

Question 31 / 1 point
Which incidents need to be investigated?

All incidents should be investigated and the investigation should reflect the potential for injury or property damage and/or injury.

Question 41 / 1 point
What is the primary underlying purpose of an accident investigation?

To find the management system failure that allowed the accident to occur

Question 51 / 1 point
What typically happens during the post-contact phase of an incident?

Emergency response

Question 61 / 1 point
Who should conduct investigations?

The site supervisors with help from employees familiar with the work area and work processes

Question 70 / 1 point
Planning for accident investigations is a powerful tool to help ensure the investigators are ready to respond and to ensure the investigation is completed properly. What is another value in proper planning for accident investigations?

It has been found to be an effective catalyst for an effective prevention program

Question 81 / 1 point
What are the two distinct types of costs considered in the analysis of an accident?

Insured costs and uninsured costs

Question 91 / 1 point
What are the three distinct phases of an incident or accident?

Pre-contact; contact and post-contact

Question 101 / 1 point
When should accidents be investigated?

The scene should be secured as necessary and the investigation commenced as soon as first responders deal with injuries, unstable or unsafe conditions and stabilize the scene.

The causes of accidents go by many names. This can cause confusion. The other names that direct causes, indirect causes and root causes go by are as follows;

Direct Causes = Proximate Causes = Superficial Causes = Immediate causes
Indirect causes= Distal Causes = Basics causes = Contributing
Root causes = Management System Failures = Fundamental Causes = Underlying Causes

Question 1
What are the three distinct planning stages of the accident investigations process?

Planning to manage pre-contact, planning for direct response and planning to post-incident and resumption as business as usual

Question 2
What is the most important aspect of the incident investigation process?

Causal analysis

Question 1
A common error made in incident investigation is in the selection process used to identify people to participate. Select the person least likely to be needed for an effective investigation of a minor incident that had great potential to cause loss.

The regional manager responsible for human resource management

Types of Evidence
IntroductionA common approach to gathering evidence in incident investigation is consulting the 4 P's: People, Positions, Parts, and Papers.

1. People Evidence
2. Position Evidence
3. Parts Evidence
.4. Paper Evidence

t or f
Whether basing evidence gathering on the P's, M's, or S's, the process is basically the same.

t

Other safety practitioners (often in the manufacturing industry) may undertake an incident investigation by collecting evidence from the 6 M's:

Machines
Methods
Materials
Maintenance
Man
Mother nature (environment).

In the service industry, safety practitioners prefer to undertake incident investigations by considering the 4 S's:

Surroundings
Suppliers
Systems
Skills

Position mapping is

the creation of a site plan of the incident scene with all necessary and relevant details drawn in.

incident investigation is a 3-step process:

Data collection
Data analysis
Identification of causal factors and corrective action

t or f
Analysis will be both qualitative and quantitative.

t

A qualitative analysis involves

an objective review of the factors relating to how the safety management system performed..

A quantitative analysis flows from

the qualitative analysis. It may involve cost models and completion of cost-benefit analysis of control options

Re-construction is

the re-building of the event backwards from the final positions of the people, equipment, materials, and environment with full application of the laws of science, considering what has been observed.

Re-enactment is

a forward-moving process by which the operators or other key personnel describe the actions and events in a step-wise fashion leading up to the incident.

Human-factor issues are a major area of study called ______________ It can be described as understanding and optimizing the worker-machine interface.

ergonomics

Corrective Action Planning
The whole purpose of the incident investigation comes together when the plan for action is developed and implemented.

The process of developing corrective actions involves:

Setting objectives
Forming alternative solutions
Testing the alternatives
Selecting the best options
Designing the program changes necessary to make the changes needed

Question 1
What data analysis processes are most commonly used in accident investigation?

Data analysis which will be both qualitative and quantitative

Question 2
What is the difference between a root cause and an intermediate cause?

Root causes are the underlying management system failures and intermediate causes are as a result of substandard conditions and substandard acts.

Question 3
The data analysis is undertaken with the intention of....

finding the root causes and identifying the health and safety management systems and business management systems that failed to allow the incident to happen.

Question 4
When undertaking the data analysis, what system elements need to be considered if recommended corrective actions are to be specified?

People, equipment, materials, environment

Question 5
What are the four key areas to look at for evidence during an accident investigation?

Carefully consider the evidence associated with the people, positions, parts and papers

Question 11 / 1 point
Which of the following is an example of a direct cause of an incident in which a worker receives a chemical burn to the lens of his eye?

A splash of concentrated nitric acid gets in the worker's eye

Question 21 / 1 point
What are the four "Ps" in evidence collection?

People, position, parts and paper

Question 30 / 1 point
What are the four classes of contributing factors in a workplace accident?

People, environment, equipment, and materials

Question 41 / 1 point
What does an incident investigation attempt to determine?

The direct and contributing causes of incidents

Question 51 / 1 point
What is the health and safety professional's role in investigating incidents?

To act as an advisor and guide to the supervisor who is conducting the investigation

Question 60 / 1 point
When should an incident investigation begin?

As soon after the incident as possible

Question 71 / 1 point
What is the first step in the scientific method?

Knowing the problem (ask a question)

Question 81 / 1 point
What is the purpose of the incident investigation form?

It is used to help investigators gather, at a minimum, the basic information that needs to be recorded about each incident

Question 91 / 1 point
How is the information, collected on the incident investigation form, used?

It is used in the incident causation analysis

Question 100 / 1 point
What is the value of determining the direct causes (immediate causes) of accidents?

To allow you to determine the indirect causes and root causes

Question 1
Why is it important for the health and safety practitioner to have an understanding of the accident theories and models?

Knowledge of accident theory is necessary to be better able to undertake accident investigations and more importantly be better able to make changes to your health and safety management system to improve accident prevention.

Question 2
What is the benefit for health and safety practitioners in learning about accident theories?

Understanding why accidents happen will help us to be better accident investigators, better accident investigation trainers and hopefully better health and safety practitioners.

There are a broad range of theories represented by as broad a range of models. These include:

Management Models (Domino theories by Heinrich, Bird, Adams, and others)
Psychological Models (focus on stress, alertness, and motivation)
Psychosocial (a sub-set of psychological emphasizing social/cultural factors)
Ergonomic Models (physical, psychological, and environmental factors)
Decision Models (focus on memory, perception, and problem-solving)
Energy Models (involve energy flow and barrier concept)
Safety System Models (a sub-set of management and ergonomic models e.g. Man/Machine/Environment)

Cyclical Single Cause Linear Causation Model
The linear flow in the previous single-cause models has been re-drawn as a circle to emphasize the feedback loop and the opportunity for continuous improvement following an accident investigation.
Note the input "keeping-up-to-date." The system needs to be receptive to new ideas and methods. Somebody needs to "keep-up-to-date." Ideally the OHS practitioner should keep current, providing input into the management system.

Question 1
What is the common structural theme of the so-called domino models?

They are all linear causation models with one or more sets of causes.

Question 2
A common structural theme of fault tree analysis is the use of "and" and "or" gates. What is the structural difference between an "and" and an "or" gate?

For the "and" gate, this model requires two or more events to occur simultaneously for the next event to be possible. For the "or" gate, if either of the two events happen, the next events will occur.

Question 3
What is the greatest strength of the linear causation models?

They are simple.

distal cause is:
immediate cause is:

...

t or f
The main difference between Bird's pyramid and Heinrich's pyramid is that Bird's pyramid was based on empirical (research) data and Heinrich's pyramid was based merely on his beliefs and casual observations. Both lead to the same understanding and conclusion and that is if the small incidents (near misses and property-damage incidents) continue to occur uncontrolled, eventually, a serious injury will occur. If instead there is a focus on preventing unsafe acts and unsafe conditions serious incidents should be less likely.

t. Bird's pyramid model:

t or f: When to Investigate
Because non-injury incidents have the potential to become injury incidents, no-loss incidents may qualify for investigation.

t
Remember all incidents warrant recording and those with potential to have caused a large loss must be investigated.

t or f
Heinrich states, "If we can eliminate the unsafe practices and unsafe conditions that lead to near misses, we can inevitably reduce the probability of minor injuries and major injuries occurring."

t

Although the __________ model is simple, it does consider an important issue: "people" are the major cause of accidents.

Heinrich's Domino Theory

Question 1
What is Heinrich's solution to deal with faulty employees who cause the majority of accidents?

Since defective workers cannot be easily fixed, Heinrich proposed focusing on the "unsafe acts" and having the supervisor closely watch the worker and prevent the "unsafe act" from happening.

Question 2
What is the direct cause of the accident described as follows:
A worker is up 10 feet on a scaffold doing maintenance work in a warehouse. A tool is "accidentally" kicked off the scaffold floor and falls striking an operator of a forklift below, causing a mild bruise on his forearm.

The tool that is "accidentally" kicked off the scaffold floor was not tied off or otherwise restrained from falling.

Question 3
What are the final two dominoes in the linear domino accident causation theories?

Contact (accident) and loss (injury)

Question 4
What is a valued use of the simplest linear causation models?

They are useful to explain accidents to the employee group and others who do not have extensive accident theory training.

Question 5
What is the difference between a no loss incident and a near-miss?

They are the same thing.

Question 11 / 1 point
What kind of accident causation theory is Heinrich's domino theory?

a management model because it focuses on people at work and their interactive relationship

Question 21 / 1 point
What are the three basic types of accident causation models?

Worker-focused, System-focused and Combined-focus

Question 31 / 1 point
How does emergency response activities affect the domino accident sequence that may result in loss?

The "loss" may be a minor injury instead of a fatality because of the first aid response

Question 41 / 1 point
How does the use personal protective equipment (PPE) affect the domino accident sequence that may results in loss?

"Contact" with the harmful energy is reduced resulting in a lesser "loss"

Question 51 / 1 point
According to Heinrich what is the overwhelming and most significant cause of accidents?

Unsafe acts

Question 61 / 1 point
Who proposed the ratio 1:29:300?

Herbert Heinrich

Question 71 / 1 point
How does Bird's pyramid differ from Heinrich's pyramid?

Bird's pyramid was based on empirical data and Heinrich's pyramid was based merely on his beliefs and casual observations

Question 81 / 1 point
If we consider Heinrich's pyramid to be an accurate representation of the ratio of accidents in the workplace, which of the following statements is true?

All incidents need to be investigated and appropriate corrections made to the health and safety management system

Question 91 / 1 point
Studies have shown that severe injuries are reasonably predictable in certain situations. Which of the following situation would be associated with severe injuries?

Unusual and non-routine work

Question 100 / 1 point
Which statement would best describe Heinrich's domino model?

A simple linear sequence of causes model

This single-cause linear causation model illustrates the value of emergency response planning in minimizing the impact and loss resulting from an incident.

Heinrich's Domino Theory
-The model is linear and singular in causation. (people at work and their interactive relationships)
-a worker's upbringing and ancestry results in defective people. and considers bad tempter, etc lead to unsafe acts and the presence of unsafe conditions
-The basic assumption is "unsafe acts" of employees is the major cause of accidents.
-"close supervision" means lots of rules and heavy discipline.
- no consideration of management failure in this model, & no acknowledgement that there are any other people involved at all.

Bird's Domino Model
-Frank Bird took Heinrich's domino sequence and identified management's role in accidents.
- accidents are ultimately caused by a lack of management control. Some "key individual" in the organization did something or failed to do something .
-similar to that of Heinrich except he broadened the idea of the losses that might occur and included people and property losses.
-Bird felt it was just "dumb luck" that some incidents resulted in limited injury and others in fatality.

Bird's Domino Model
He revised the list of unsafe acts and unsafe conditions by further breaking them down as:

Lack of Control by Management
Basic Causes (personal and job factors)
Immediate Causes (unsafe practices and conditions)
Descriptions of the types of incidents and losses

t or f
Bird's Domino Model
A final refinement of the model (which has made it one of the most commonly used in Canada) is to say that accidents are ultimately caused by a lack of management control. That is to say a "key individual(s) at some level" (from worker to CEO) in the organization did or failed to do something resulting in an accident.

t

t or f
Bird also introduced the term "incident," An incident is defined as an unwanted and unplanned event that may result in equipment damage and/or injury.

t

Different names are often used for the terms used in Bird's domino model. Other terms used for "immediate causes", "basic causes" and "lack of control" are :

Immediate causes = Direct Causes = Proximate Causes = Superficial Causes
Basics causes = Contributing = Indirect causes= Distal Causes
Lack of control = Root causes = Fundamental Causes = Underlying Causes = Management System Failures

Cause and Effect
Bird's revised domino model without the obvious domino analogy.
-still a cause and effect that ripples through the organization.
-A feedback loop is introduced with analysis of loss.
- one of the simplest models that have all of the basic ingredients to make it relevant and useful.
-It is up to date with the broadest base of current thinking of safety practitioners as a good basic representation of what goes wrong when a workplace accident occurs.

Loss includes the energy contact concept and acknowledges two things:

-First, the basic causes of accidents are the existence of unsafe conditions and/or that an employee commits unsafe acts.
-Second, the existence of the unsafe conditions and the commitment of the unsafe acts is due to personal factors affecting the employees or job factors affecting the employees.

ISMEC
Bird's up-dated accident sequence model described management control in terms that are synonymous with ISMEC.
Identification of the work to be performed
Standards are established for the work to be performed
Measuring performance by degree of compliance with standards
Evaluate performance
Commend compliance or correct deficiencies

Adam's Domino Model
Edward Adams refined Bird's model.
-The distinctive features of Adam's domino model compared to Bird's or Heinrich's is that Adam's model is a more developed management model that includes a closer analysis of the company structure through the activities of managers, supervisors and workers.
-The management structure includes the: company objectives, organization, and operations.
-Inappropriate management structure or weaknesses in management structure may allow other than ideal management behaviours that can lead to tactical errors by workers. Adams tries to point out the importance of the management structure itself and the potential for it to impact employee behaviour.

Influence of Management
The management system and management behavior have a big influence on the supervisory staff.
Management failures can lead to:

-problems with the supervisor's conduct affecting the supervisor's sense of ownership, authority, and responsibility.
-affect the enforcement of rules. Poor management can create an atmosphere of negative coaching and can make efforts on initiative counter-intuitive to efficient and safe work procedures.These behaviors can lead to tactical errors, and in the long run, morale may suffer.

t or f
Adams model points out the "people behind the dominos".

t
This is a very important observation! The next version of his model takes this point further, tracing root causes to the behaviour of the company's Directors or owners.

Due Diligence Model
The due diligence model of accident causation is a more specific explanation of what is suggested in the IRS model. It specifically details the responsibility with respect to health and safety at each level in the organization. This model also details the extent to which failures or weaknesses present an opportunity for accidents.

Accident Proneness
The accident proneness theory is an old idea, but is valuable in discussing a person's tendency to err and cause an accident..

The accident proneness model considers the psychological state of the individual in the model. This model is an ergonomic model
The theory is not popular because there is no meaningful way to assess accident proneness.

t or f
Life Change Unit (LCU) Theory
The Life Change Unit (LCU) theory suggests that people are more likely to be involved in accidents if they have considerable stress in their lives.The more stress, the more likely you will be in an accident.

t
37% of workers scoring 150-199 LCU's had an accident or illness within 2 years
51% of workers scoring 200-299 LCU's had an accident or illness within 2 years
79% of workers scoring > 300 LCU's had an accident or illness within 2 years

Kerr's Goal on Freedom Model
Dr. Kerr's theories include the idea of "proneness", making up a small percentage of the causes of accidents. He suggests well over 50% of accidents are due to adjustment to stress.The balance in Kerr's view is that "goals-opportunity and alertness" (or Goal on Freedom) make up the balance of the cause of accidents.
Dr. Willard Kerr suggests that workers, who are given the freedom to set their own goals, will usually engage in high-quality work, which includes safe work.He suggested that accidents happen because of a low level of alertness—not because of external factors in the workplace.
The Freedom Model is a behavior model.

Kerr's Freedom Model is sort of the opposite of the internal stress theory. If people have lots of control, they feel less stress and perform better

Motivation-Reward-Satisfaction Model
The central concept is that motivation affects performance and performance failures lead to accidents.

t or
A Useful Tool for Many Modern Day Accidents
Because the Motivation-Reward-Satisfaction Model is also reward-based, it is placed with the behaviorism models.This is a very useful model for many modern day accidents.

t

The Adjustment Stress Theory is really a trivial pictorial representation of the life change unit theory. It is a basis of some of the other human factors models.

Two types of stress related to this include stresses internal to the body and stress external to the body:
Internal - the life change unit idea
External - workplace environmental (heat, weight of materials, pressure to produce)

Ferrell's Theory
Russell Ferrell's theory is a multi-causation theory. It locates the cause of accidents in human error. Human error is a special subject of its own. His model is a multiple causation model, in which numerous errors on the part of people lead to the same accident. He considers that a human error model contains three parts:
Overload
Incompatibility
Improper activities

t or f
In human factor models, human error begins the causal chain that results in workplace accidents.

t

Petersen's Second Accident Causation Model
Petersen's second model builds on the Ferrell Human Factors Model; but doesn't rely solely on the concept of human error. Peterson also considers system failures as a factor.Human errors are caused by three main categories; overload, decision to err, and traps.

Under what circumstances would a decision to err be a logical decision? Here are two possibilities:

In workplace where productivity is measured such as quota systems or pay for piece work an employee deliberately takes a shortcut to meet targets.
An employee paid by the hour may not take all the time necessary to do the work according to procedure in order to receive a perceived benefit of getting home a few minutes early.

Traps refer to ergonomic factors such as:
Workstation design
Incompatible displays
Controls

Trap Example
An example of a trap is having two pieces of equipment (such as two forklifts) with two different controls systems and displays.Confusion between the two sets of controllers could lead to an accident.

Geller's ABC Model
Geller's Activator-Behavior-Consequence Model (ABC Model) is founded in the idea that accidents are caused by workers' unsafe behaviors. Their behaviors are affected by the feedback from consequence.
It assumes that individuals are not receiving the right mix of positive rewards and negative sanctions to reinforce safe behavior.

Geller's Activator-Behavior-Consequence Model (ABC Model) forms the roots of a very popular safety system today called Behavior Based Safety (BBS).Behavior Based Safety is the application of the science of behavioral change to the real world problems created by workers' unsafe acts.

Geller's Pyramid
Geller also proposed a pyramid to explain accident causation. It is similar to the Heinrich and Bird models. Geller's Pyramid takes in to account the achievements of the worker. Geller's Pyramid effectively adds 4 layers below the bottom of the pyramid proposed by Bird. These 4 layers are related to values, attitude, and behaviors of the employee.

Ball's Energy Model
Ball's Energy Model is fundamental to all accident investigations. Without high energy nothing bad happens.

t or f
Ball's Model May Be Useful in Hazard Recognition
Accidents occur when we have unwanted energy flows that are greater than the threshold limit.

t

Weaver's Model
Weaver's Model is a domino model. The model suggests that the root causes reside with these two options. The root causes for the unsafe acts and conditions are a management system issue.It is similar to Heinrich's in that it proposes the sequence and considers the following factors:

Heredity and environmental background of the employee
Fault of the employee
Creation of an unsafe act or unsafe condition

t or f
Zabetakis is one of the best overall models for experienced safety practitioners to use to discuss and analyze any type of incident. It take some experience to work it through but yields very good results.

t

The Firenze Model focuses on what has become known as the "man-machine system". T
Man-Machine-Environment are considered to be one and are inseparable. The system has been designed and put in place to achieve a task or work outcome. If all parts are functioning the outcome is achieved. A failure in any part of the system or at the interface between system components and the task is not completed and in some cases it results in an accident.

The Surry Model
a decision model. Decision models focus on a sequence of events that have to succeed or fail in order to have the accident or avoid the accident. It is a complex model that is closely related to safety system models.
The Surrey Model has two cycles:
-Danger build up
-Danger release
Both cycles have 3 steps:
-Perception
-Cognitive process
-Physiological response

The Surry Model includes: perception, cognition and response. Failure of any of these will lead to a "build-up" of danger that if not "released" will lead to a reactor core melt-down.

The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) Model
assumes the causation process is complex, multifaceted, and systems orientated. The model is described in a reactive fashion and it may be used after the event for investigation.The initiatory phase can be measured in weeks, days or minutes.

Energy-Barrier-Trace Model
The Energy-Barrier-Trace Model is a common concept in hazard control. It is based on the idea that hazards are controlled:
At the source (chemical tank enclosure)
Along the pathway (use of dilution ventilation)
At the receptor (respiratory protection)
The energy source and the track it takes to the target can be blocked by use of multiple barriers.
Its key premise is that a control system protects us from exposure to energy (chemical exposure, in this example) above the threshold.

James Reason's Model
James Reason focussed his efforts on what he called organizational accidents. These accidents have their roots in the foundational management systems that guide work and the systems built to defend against such losses.
James Reason's "Swiss Cheese" Model is a very useful one. The hazard source is identified and separate

t or f
Flexible and Applicable
James Reason's Swiss Cheese Model is, in some respects, the best accident causation model available to us. This theory is considered by many experienced occupational health and safety practitioners to be the most flexible and broadly applicable theories.

t

Tripod Delta Model
was developed for Shell and is the same simple model of hazards, defenses, and losses as in the James Reason's Model.The model moves away from measuring performance in terms of lost time injuries and other end of the line statistics.The focus is on measuring processes that disrupt safe operations (General Failure Types - GFT).It includes a feedback mechanism to measure and control the general failure types. It minimizes them, so that it reduces the likelihood of unsafe acts. It therefore reduces the likelihood of loss-causing incidents.

Summary of Accident Theories
It is not likely that you will remember them all. As a competent occupational health and safety practitioner, you should know the general structure of most models and be able to describe a feature or two of each.

Herbert Heinrich (pyramid, domino)
Frank Bird Jr. (accident ratio, original domino, updated accident sequence)
ISMEC
Edward Adam's (original domino, people-oriented revision)
IRS Domino/Mapped onto Due Diligence/Legal Duties Domino
Accident Proneness
Life Change Unit
Dr. Willard Kerr's Goals Freedom Alertness
Dan Petersen's Motivation Reward Satisfaction
Adjustment Stress Theory
Russell Ferrell Theory
Behavior Psychology (Activator-Behavior-Consequence)
Ball Energy
Weaver's Up-dated Accident Sequence
Zabetakis
Firenze
Surry
CSA (1998)
James Reason's (1997)
Swiss Cheese
Tripod-Delta

t or f
You must be able to identify causal factors to determine the real root causes of accidents. You must know these introductory accident theories in order to undertake accident investigations.

t

Question 1
What are the last two dominoes in Bird's linear domino accident causation theories?

Incident (contact) and loss (people and property)

Question 2
What did Bird think was the "lack of control" that constituted the root causes of all accidents?

Inadequate programs, inadequate program standards and inadequate compliance to programs

Question 3
Which of the following theories are ergonomic theories? Select all that apply.

Peterson's Second Accident Causation Theory
Accident Proneness

Question 4
Which one of the following theories is a management system model?

Bird's Domino Model

Question 5
If a worker working at a control panel in a chemical plant makes an error and increases the process flow of reactants to a reactor instead of decreasing the flow, how would Ferrell describe the error?

It is a human error resulting from one or more of overload, incompatibility, or improper activities.

Question 6
Petersen's Second Accident Causation Model centers around human error. If a worker working on a control panel in a chemical plant makes an error and increases the process flow of reactants to a reactor instead of decreasing the flow, how would Petersen describe the error?

It is a result of human error due to one of: decision to err, traps or overload.

Question 7
Which accident theory would be best to describe the cause of an accident in which operational error has been identified as the major aspect of the cause?

Weaver

Question 8
Which model is described as "very useful albeit dynamic and complicated model" and has energy as its central theme?

Zabetakis

Question 9
Why is it important for the health and safety practitioner to have an understanding of the accident theories and models?

Knowledge of accident theory is necessary to be better able to undertake accident investigations and more importantly be better able to make changes to your health and safety management system to improve your accident prevention.

Question 10
According to Bird, if the basic causes of accidents include "job factors," and "personal factors," what are the immediate causes of accidents?

Unsafe practices and unsafe conditions

Question 11
Which of the following is a basic (or contributing) cause of accidents according to Bird's theory?

Lack of knowledge or skill

Question 12
What is the root cause of accidents according to Bird's domino theory?

Lack of control by management

Question 11 / 1 point
Adam's domino accident theory was an improvement on Bird's. What was the major improvement?

Adam's focus was on the management structure and the errors made by managers and supervisors

...

Question 21 / 1 point
The Tripod-Delta model suggests that the focus of accident control should be on which of the following?

measuring processes that disrupt safe operations

...

Question 31 / 1 point
What are the causes of the operational errors that lead to accidents according to Adam's domino model?
Manager and supervisor behavior

...

Question 41 / 1 point
Which of the following accident causation theories would be considered to be an ergonomic model?

Firenze

...

Question 51 / 1 point
What are the two main periods in the Surry model?
Danger build-up and danger release

...

Question 61 / 1 point
What does ABC stand for in the ABC Model?

Activator-Behaviour-Consequences

...

Question 71 / 1 point
Which of the following energy forms are not considered in the Ball Energy Model?

De-ionizing

...

Question 81 / 1 point
The major point of the Douglas Stair Step Model is?

There is no single acceptable standard for performing work safely

...

Question 91 / 1 point
What are the three main components of the Firenze model?
man-machine-environment

...

Question 101 / 1 point
What type of model is Petersen's Motivation Reward Satisfaction theory?
Psychological

...

Analysis of Loss
Use Bird's domino model to describe the sequence of events of the "Young Worker falls from Third-story Balcony" incident.

loss = was the loss of the young worker's life and all of the associated costs.incident = worker's fall from the third floor balcony. The energy source that killed the worker was gravitational energy that accelerated the worker into the ground at a speed that created a force above the threshold energy to cause injury and death.immediate cause = working at elevation without temporary railing or another type of barrier (unsafe condition/substandard condition) and without fall protection (unsafe act/substandard act).basics causes = lack of knowledge by the worker of the hazard or of the need for fall protection, inadequate supervision, and inadequate work standards or procedures.lack of management control = inadequate standards and inadequate compliance with standards.

Motivation-Reward-Satisfaction Model
Petersen's motivation-reward-satisfaction model is a very useful and broadly applicable accident causation model.It is a psychological model, and the key element is the worker's performance, which is affected by two factors: motivation and ability.
The central concept is that motivation and ability affects performance and performance failures lead to accidents.

Human errors are caused by three main categories:

Overload
Decision to err
Traps

Human Error and System Failure
In the "Young Worker falls from Third-story Balcony" incident the accident was caused by human errors including:
General peer pressure leading to logical decision to err (the relaxed attitude towards safety in general)
Lack of training and awareness (leading to a low perceived probability of the chance of falling from the balcony)
Lack of knowledge (leading to low state of arousal to the severe hazard associated with the situation)
These factors created a situation where the worker made an error. The error was not caught or corrected because of a system failure.The system failure included a lack of:
Supervision
Inspection
Correction
Training
Standard work procedures
Hazard recognition

James Reason's Model
In Reason's model, the workers are separated from the hazard source by a series of defenses. If the defenses are complete, the energy cannot reach the target and no loss occurs.

Using the information provided in the accident investigation report, "Young Worker falls from Third-story Balcony" as an example, the energy would be the gravitational energy converted into velocity causing the impact on the ground below the third floor balcony.

A causal factor is

any behavior or omission that starts or sustains an accidental occurrence. Causal factors can be classified as either significant or influencing.

Causal factors are best classified into one of four groups:

People
Environment
Equipment
Management

Question 1
The worker complained that the error in attempting the lift was his fault for not checking with the crew chief to confirm the weight associated with each pipe. The labourer rigging the load did not check with the crew chief to confirm the pipe weight either. They both complained that they were tired and had been working days the previous week and had just changed over to nights.
What accident theory would best describe what happened at this chemical plant?

Swiss Cheese Model

Module 6 case study self check
Question 2
What would Heinrich suggest to keep this from occurring in the future?

Retrain the workers involved so that they know they are to check the weight of every load before beginning a lift.

Module 6 case study self check
Question 3
What solution would Adam's model point us to?

Review the workplace inspection and training program to learn why the unsafe condition and unsafe act was allowed to occur.

Module 6 case study self check
Question 5
If we asked Ferrell about this accident what would he say was the cause of the "human error" that resulted in this catastrophe?

Overload of the workers' capacity caused by fatigue.

Module 6 case study self check
Question 4
Bird's updated domino sequence focused on "lack of control by management" as the major cause of accidents. Which of the following was the "lack of control by management" that caused the accident?

Inadequate compliance to standards

Module 6 case study self check
Question 5
If we asked Ferrell about this accident what would he say was the cause of the "human error" that resulted in this catastrophe?

Overload of the workers' capacity caused by fatigue.

Module 6 case study self check
Question 6
What energy form was the primary cause of this accident?

Potential (gravitational)

Module 6 case study self check
Question 7
What is the central element of this accident according to the Zabetakis theory of accident causation?

Potential (gravitational) energy of the lifted heat exchanger tubing

Potential (gravitational) energy of the lifted heat exchanger tubing

Module 6 case study self check
Question 8
The Swiss Cheese Model proposed by James Reason is in some respects the best accident causation model available to us. One of the systems in place (one of the pieces of Swiss Cheese) is the operations procedures for crane operators and riggers. The failure in this accident was due to so-called holes in the cheese. What is the cause of this hole?

Human failures

Question 11 / 1 point
What are the distinctive features of Adam's domino model compared to Bird's or Heinrich's?

Adam's model is a more developed management model that includes a closer analysis of the company structure through the activities of managers, supervisors and workers

Question 21 / 1 point
Which of the following accident causation theories would be considered a management model?

Zabetakis

Question 31 / 1 point
What is the central element of the Zabetakis model?

The unplanned release of energy

Question 41 / 1 point
The Energy Barrier Trace model suggests that the harmful energy can be controlled at three distinct points along the accident pathway. What are the three points?

at source, along pathway and at target

Question 51 / 1 point
A workplace health and safety system is just one part of the larger management system that is needed for any business to succeed. Other systems often integrated into a company's management system, in addition to a health and safety system, may include which of the following?

Quality and Environmental management system

Question 61 / 1 point
What is considered to cause the holes in the "Swiss cheese" in James Reason's Swiss Cheese accident theory?

active failures and sharp end human failures

Question 71 / 1 point
In the Swiss Cheese model, what are the pieces of Swiss cheese?

defenses

Question 81 / 1 point
What is the root cause of accidents according to Russell Ferrell's theory?

Human error

Question 91 / 1 point
Ergonomic accident models in general include which of the following features?

They highlight the relationship between the individual worker and his or her surroundings

Question 101 / 1 point
If a worker climbs a ladder with a broken rung and the damaged rung breaks resulting in worker injury: what solutions would the Heinrich model point us to?

Discard the damaged ladder and teach the worker how to inspect and use ladders.

Question 111 / 1 point
James Reason's model of accident causation is considered by many to be one of the best. A limitation of his research and the developed model is that it focuses on which of the following?

organizational accidents

Question 121 / 1 point
A worker receives a chemical burn to the lens of his eye (as a result of nitric acid being splashed during chemical handling). Which of the following is an example of a root cause of such an incident?

Corporate policy does not require new hire training on chemical hazards and control.

Question 131 / 1 point
There are two types of analysis an incident investigator can do. One is to examine the individual incident to determine the corrective action or actions to prevent recurrence. What is the other type of analysis?

Statistical analysis to examine a group of similar occurrences for patterns leading themselves to corrective actions.

Question 141 / 1 point
What are the four basic elements of occupational health and safety management?

Management leadership/employee involvement; hazard prevention and control; worksite analysis; and training

Question 151 / 1 point
What is the chief value in investigating minor loss incidents?

To discover any contributing causes

Question 161 / 1 point
What is the main difference between Heinrich's and Bird's domino accident theory?

Heinrich felt we should "blame the victim" and Bird felt we should "blame the system"

Question 171 / 1 point
A worker fails to start a local exhaust fan before beginning to weld. The local exhaust system is used to remove the smoke and particulate produced by welding. Welding fume accumulates in the workplace air. Workers adjacent to the process are over-come by welding fume and seek medical aid. Which of the following is an example of a contributing cause (indirect cause) of this incident?

The worker had not been trained on the use and care of the local exhaust system

Question 181 / 1 point
According to Bird's first domino accident theory which of the following is responsible for the failures in management control that leads to accidents?

Management

Question 191 / 1 point
If a worker climbs a ladder with a broken rung and the damaged rung breaks resulting in worker injury, what solutions would the Adam's model point us to?

Adam's model would point us to any of these types of solutions identified in 1, 2, or 3.

Question 201 / 1 point
What is an example of the most basic of management models?

A simple linear domino model

The National Environmental or Sustainable Development Plan has two specific categories:

Canada's Green Plan and Agenda 21.

Agenda 21 is:

"Agenda 21 is a non-binding, voluntarily implemented action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development."

The Canadian Environmental Protection Act.
The guiding principles of the CEPA include:

Ensuring sustainable development that meets the needs of the present and future generations
Preventing unnecessary pollution
Ensuring the prevention of environmental degradation
Forcing polluting organizations to pay for pollution cleanup measures
Removing threats to biological diversity

t or f
The 6 schedules of the CEPA are:
Toxic substances
Equivalent Acts and Regulations
Export Control List
Part 1: Prohibited substances
Part 2: Substances requiring export notice
Part 3: Restricted substances
Other Equivalent Acts and Regulations
Waste or other matter
Assessment of waste or other matter

t

t or f
Transportation of Dangerous Goods or TDG. A dangerous good includes anything that is explosive, flammable, toxic, corrosive, radioactive or harmful in any other way to the environment or to humans.

t

t or f
Occupational health and safety's external responsibility falls under a single jurisdiction—either provincial or federal depending on the type of employment. Environmental Law, however, is governed by three separate jurisdictions—federal, provincial, and municipal.

t

t or f
Federal - Environment Canada
Federal-Provincial - Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment

t

EMS Training
The basic seven-step process for training development:

Summary
The final course delivery should be effective and efficient if these steps are followed. Special attention should be given to the documentation related to the training delivery. As you learned earlier, ISO Standards require that all efforts related to the EMS are effectively documented. Training documentation may include training certificates, class rosters, and completed final evaluation exams.

1. Determine Training Needs
2. Set Training Priorities
3. Set Training Objectives
4. Select Course Content
5. Select Instructional Methods
6. Develop or Secure the Training Program
7. Preparing the Training Aids

Internal communications would concern matters such as:

Operational changes
Documentation revisions
System-wide changes

Documentation is critical to any EMS, regardless of the standard used (ISO, BS, etc.). Documentation includes:

An EMS manual is optional within the system. The EMS manual may describe various elements such as:

Policy
Environmental aspects
Legal requirements
Objectives and targets
Responsibilities
Training requirements
Communication
Documentation
Document and operational control
Emergency response
Monitoring and measurement
Corrective action requirements
Audit data
Management review

t or f
Procedures do not necessarily relate to hands-on work. They may include communication procedures, document control procedures, or management review and audit procedures. All procedure types are critical to the EMS.

t

t or f
Work instructions relate to the actual hands-on tasks of the company. As with procedures, work instructions provide consistency when documented and followed.

t

Technical data makes up the bulk of the documentation. This type of data may include:

previous audits, air emission testing, soil contamination testing, chemical release data, or regulatory offence data.
(Technical data can include anything that is not categorized as manual, procedural or work instruction documentation)

Here are a few basic principles of documentation and document control:

Documentation is a critical component of any management system
Documentation can assist in the evaluation of management systems
Documentation can demonstrate due diligence
Document management and document control ensure only the latest revisions of documents are used
Simple document control systems work better than complex systems

The first step within any document control system is to identify which documents to include in the document control system, such as:

Procedures
Policies
Objectives and targets
Checklists
Forms
Work instructions
Reference manuals
Legislation
Standards
Process information

Document Control System

t or f
If the EMS follows different principles than a company's other management systems, it will confuse the personnel and increase the chance for failure.

t

Question 1
Indicate if the statement is true or false:
When revising or developing written job responsibilities, there are no specific rules on how they should be written.

t
The written job responsibilities may be a simple paragraph or they may be 5 to 6 bullet points. the responsibilities should be specific to the position and the employee's position and involvement in the EMS.

Question 2
The ISO 14000 model requires that a company that is implementing an environmental management system define responsibilities, roles, and ___.

Authority

Question 3
Which skills, capabilities, or attributes must EMS management representatives possess? Select all that apply.
Question 3 options:
Organizational skills
Communication skills
Authority
Knowledge of the operation
Available time

all

Question 4
With respect to EMS training, place the steps of training development in the correct order.

1-Determine training needs
2-Set training priorities
3-Set training objectives
4-Select course content
5-Select instructional methods
6-Develop the training program
7-Prepare the training aids

Question 5
Match the communication method with the correct description.

Internal communication - manager to worker
External communication - interested party to company

Question 6
With respect to EMS documentation, which type of documentation makes up the least amount?

Manual

uestion 7
What is the last step in the document control process?

Communicate and train

Question 8
Schedules for revisions and updates are typically every _____.

2-5 years

Question 11 / 1 point
What is the first step when defining responsibilities?

Identify the job positions that will be impacted by the EMS

Question 21 / 1 point
What is the first step when carrying out document control?

Write or revise the document

Question 31 / 1 point
What question should be asked when reviewing job responsibilities for clarity within the EMS?

Are all positions within the EMS clearly defined?

uestion 41 / 1 point
What skill, capability, or attribute must EMS management representatives possess?

Excellent communication skills

Question 51 / 1 point
With respect to document control, which one of the following statements is true?

Simple document control systems are far better than complex ones

Question 61 / 1 point
What factor must you consider when setting training priorities?

Environmental impact

Question 71 / 1 point
What is external communication?

Communication from interested party to company

Question 81 / 1 point
With respect to EMS documentation, what type of documentation makes up the majority of the documents?

Technical data

Question 91 / 1 point
Which one of the following documents is considered technical data?

Previous audits

Question 101 / 1 point
What is the first step in training development?

Determine training needs

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