Which of the following is not an example of a prediction based on path-goal theory

3.1 Search results

The electronic database search yielded a total of 50,941 titles and abstracts, with 16,277 titles and abstracts resulting from the search update. Following removal of duplicates in the updated search, 5898 titles and abstracts were screened using the inclusion criteria and 351 manuscripts were retrieved for full-text screening. After final selection using the inclusion criteria for this review, 76 studies (reported in 84 papers) were added to the 53 studies included in the original review (1985–2009). In cases where multiple manuscripts were published from a single study, we counted them as one study in our analysis. Therefore, 129 studies (53 original and 76 updated) were included. All studies were quantitative in design. See Table 1 for search results.

Table 1. Search strategy.

Note: For the updated search (2007–2017) the term nurs* was added as a search heading for each database in order to return only nursing relevant studies.

Of the 129 included studies, published between 1985 and 2017, 74 were conducted in North America (43 in the United States, 29 in Canada, 1 in Canada and the United States, and 1 in Canada and Australia), 24 in Europe, 11 in Asia, 8 in the Middle East, 4 in Australasia, 2 in Africa, and 6 had no stated country. See Table 2 for all characteristics of included studies.

Table 2. Characteristics of included studies.

PV = Previously Validated.

NR = Not Reported.

3.2 Summary of quality review

Weaknesses in the 129 quantitative study designs related to sampling, design, and analysis (see Table 3). All 129 studies used correlational, non-experimental, or cross-sectional designs and were rated as moderate (scores = 5–9) or high quality (scores ≥ 10). However, these correlational designs limit interpretations of causality. Only 33 of the 129 included studies used probability sampling, partially due to the difficulty in using random sampling methods to study leadership in specific individuals or units. Many studies used correlational and regression analyses and 100 studies did not report the management of outliers. Only 65 studies addressed appropriateness of sample size and 95 of 129 addressed anonymity of respondents. Ninety-six of 129 studies used samples from more than one site. Effects or outcomes of leadership were most often self-reported (n = 110), rather than observed.

Table 3. Summary of Quality Assessment – 129 included quantitative studies.

A strength of included studies was the pervasive use of theory to guide research (113 of 129 studies), with some authors integrating several established theories to guide their research. These leadership theories and frameworks most often applied included Bass (and Avolio)’s Transformational and Transactional Leadership (33 studies), and Full Range Leadership Model (4 studies), Avolio and Gardner’s Authentic Leadership (11 studies), Kanter’s Organizational Empowerment Theory (10 studies), Kouzes and Posner’s Leadership Practices (6 studies), Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model (2 studies), Path Goal Theory (2 studies), Magnet Hospital Model (2 studies), and Consideration and Initiation (2 studies). Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services (PARIHS) was used to frame the research design in 2 studies. All remaining leadership theories were used in single studies.

Twenty studies in this review employed higher level multivariate statistical procedures, such as hierarchical regression, and 22 studies specifically applied structural equation modeling. Of those using structural equation modeling, 18 studies were published within the last 10 years.

3.3 The outcomes of leadership

A total of 121 identified outcomes were grouped into six categories, 1) staff satisfaction with job factors, 2) staff relationships with work, 3)staff health & wellbeing, 4) relations among staff, 5) organizational environment factors and 6) productivity & effectiveness. See Table 4 for all outcomes sorted by category, relational leadership style (shaded), task-focused leadership (non-shaded), frequency, and significance of outcomes or effects. In studies examining multiple relational and/or task-focused leadership styles, outcomes are accounted for in each category in which they were reported in Table 4. For the following results section, we present categories, most frequently cited outcomes, and difference in outcomes. In text citation numbers for each outcome refers to study numbers in Table 2.

Table 4. Outcome differences between relationally focused (shaded) and task focused (non-shaded) leadership styles. Total: 121 outcomes in 129 studies.

Note: Numbers in each column = reference numbers of included studies from Table 2.

Shaded results = Relational leadership styles.

Non-shaded results = Task focused leadership styles.

Some studies examined multiple relational and/or task-focused styles with mixed results, and are accounted for in each category they were reported for.

Staff Satisfaction with work, job and their Leaders. Sixty-five studies reported 18 outcomes influenced by leadership style related to staff satisfaction with work, job and their leaders, which also included satisfaction with roles, policies and rewards. The most frequently examined outcome of leadership in this review was nursing job satisfaction (n = 57). Fifty-two of 57 studies reported highest job satisfaction associated with a variety of relational focused leadership styles, such as socio-emotional, consideration, authentic, inspirational, resonant and transformational leadership (4, 5, 7–10, 14, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38–40, 46, 47, 50, 54, 55, 58, 62, 63, 66, 68, 69, 73, 77, 80, 83–85, 90, 92, 98, 105, 107, 109, 111, 112, 115, 117, 118, 122, 124, 126). In 4 studies, the task-focused style transactional leadership was associated with increased job satisfaction (54, 98, 105, 111). Sixteen studies reported that job satisfaction was significantly lower with task-focused forms of leadership, such as management by exception, instrumental, and laissez faire leadership (5, 7, 8, 10, 21, 25, 28, 32, 40, 47, 50, 54, 58, 105, 108, 117). Relational leadership styles were not significantly associated with job satisfaction in two studies (37, 42).

Significantly higher satisfaction with their leader was reported in 9 studies when leadership styles were authentic, charismatic, resonant, or transformational (6, 10, 11, 19, 43, 49, 78, 117, 126). Two studies examining consideration and initiating structures found equivocal results (19, 43). Management by exception (6), transactional and laissez faire (11, 58, 59, 117), and dissonant (10) leadership styles were associated with significantly lower satisfaction with their leader in 6 studies. The next most frequently examined outcomes included satisfaction with organizational work, work itself, and power, which were reported significantly higher with authentic, resonant, empowering, initiating structure and consideration styles of leadership (10). Results for remaining outcomes were equivocal or reported in a small number of studies.