Which of the following is the most effective strategy for preventing accidents and injuries in middle late childhood?

-Definitive causes of ADHD have not been found. However, a number of causes have been proposed. Some children likely inherit a tendency to develop ADHD from their parents. Other children likely develop ADHD because of damage to their brain during prenatal or postnatal development. Among early possible contributors to ADHD are cigarette and alcohol exposure, as well as a high level of maternal stress during prenatal development and low birth weight.
-As with learning disabilities, the development of brain-imaging techniques is leading to a better understanding of the brain's role in ADHD. One study revealed that peak thickness of the cerebral cortex occurred three years later (10.5 years) in children with ADHD than in children without ADHD (peak at 7.5 years). The delay was more prominent in the prefrontal regions of the brain that are especially important in attention and planning. A study also found delayed development of the brain's frontal lobes in children with ADHD, linked to delayed or decreased myelination. Researchers are exploring the roles that various neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, might play in ADHD. A recent study found that the dopamine transporter gene DAT 1 was involved in decreased cortical thickness in the prefrontal cortex of children with ADHD

-The delays in brain development just described are in areas linked to executive function. A focus of increasing interest in studies of children with ADHD is their difficulty on tasks involving executive function, such as behavioral inhibition when necessary, use of working memory, and effective planning. Researchers also have found deficits in theory of mind in children with ADHD
-Adjustment and optimal development also are difficult for children who have ADHD, so it is important that the diagnosis be accurate. Children diagnosed with ADHD have an increased risk of problematic peer relations, school dropout, adolescent pregnancy, substance use problems, and antisocial behavior. For example, a recent research review concluded that in comparison with typically developing girls, girls with ADHD had more problems in friendship, peer interaction, social skills, and peer victimization. Also, a recent research review concluded that ADHD in childhood was linked to the following long-term outcomes: failure to complete high school, other mental and substance use disorders, criminal activity, and unemployment. Also, a recent study found that childhood ADHD was associated with long-term underachievement in math and reading

-Stimulant medication such as Ritalin (methylphenidate) or Adderall (amphetamine and dextroamphetamine) is effective in improving the attention of many children with ADHD, but it usually does not improve their attention to the same level as children who do not have ADHD. A recent research review also concluded that stimulant medications are effective in treating ADHD during the short term but that longer-term benefits of stimulant medications are not clear. A meta-analysis concluded that behavior management treatments are effective in reducing the symptoms of ADHD. Researchers have often found that a combination of medication (such as Ritalin) and behavior management may improve the behavior of children with ADHD better than medication alone or behavior management alone, although this does not happen in all cases.

-The sheer number of ADHD diagnoses has prompted speculation that psychiatrists, parents, and teachers might be labeling normal childhood behavior as psychopathology. One reason for concern about overdiagnosing ADHD is that the form of treatment in well over 80 percent of cases is psychoactive drugs, including stimulants such as Ritalin and Adderall. Further, there is increasing concern that children who are given stimulant drugs such as Ritalin or Adderall are at risk for developing substance abuse problems in adolescence and adulthood, although research results so far have been mixed

-Recently, researchers have been exploring the possibility that neurofeedback might improve the attention of children with ADHD. Neurofeedback trains individuals to become more aware of their physiological responses so that they can attain better control over their brain's prefrontal cortex, where executive control primarily occurs. Individuals with ADHD have higher levels of electroencephalogram (EEG) abnormalities, such as lower beta waves that involve attention and memory, and lower sensorimotor rhythms (which involve control of movements). Neurofeedback produces audiovisual profiles of brain waves so that individuals can learn how to achieve normal EEG functioning. In a recent study, 7- to 14-year-olds with ADHD were randomly assigned either to take Ritalin or to undergo 40 sessions of a neurofeedback treatment. Both groups showed a lower level of ADHD symptoms six months after the treatment, but only the neurofeedback group performed better academically.

-Recently, mindfulness training also has been given to children and adolescents with ADHD. A recent meta-analysis concluded that mindfulness training significantly improved the attention of children with ADHD. Also, in one study, 11- to 15-year-old adolescents with ADHD received eight weeks of mindfulness training. Immediately after and eight weeks following the training, the adolescents' attention improved and they engaged in fewer behavioral problems, although at 16 weeks post-training the effects had waned.
-Exercise also is being investigated as a possible treatment for children with ADHD. A recent study found that a single 20-minute bout of moderately intense aerobic exercise improved the neurocognitive function and inhibitory control of children with ADHD. Another recent study revealed that higher levels of physical activity in adolescence were linked with a lower incidence of ADHD in emerging adulthood. Further, a recent study confirmed that an 8-week yoga program was effective in improving the sustained attention of children with ADHD. Also, a recent meta-analysis concluded that physical exercise is effective in reducing cognitive symptoms of ADHD in individuals 3 to 25 years of age. A second recent meta-analysis concluded that short-term aerobic exercise is effective in reducing symptoms such as inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. And another recent meta-analysis indicated that exercise is associated with better executive function in children with ADHD.

-Among the reasons given as to why exercise might reduce ADHD symptoms in children are
(1) better allocation of attention resources,
(2) positive influence on prefrontal cortex functioning, and
(3) exercise-induced dopamine release.

-Despite the encouraging recent studies of the use of neurofeedback, mindfulness training, and exercise to improve the attention of children with ADHD, it has not been determined whether these non-drug therapies are as effective as stimulant drugs and/or whether they benefit children as add-ons to stimulant drugs to provide a combination treatment

Which of Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning is most likely to be seen during middle late childhood?

Which of the following is are the leading cause of death during middle and late childhood?

Which brain structure's neural connections increase in middle to late childhood in regards to memory?

What is metacognition quizlet?