Which of the following sets of words might best lend itself to a semantic feature analysis?

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A course of semantics (key(

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1. 1. 177 ANSWER KEYS Exercise 1: For each group of words given below, state what semantic features are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic features distinguish between the classes of (a) words and (b) words. The first is done as example. 1. (a) lobster, shrimp, crab, oyster, mussel (b) trout, sole, herring, salmon, mackerel The (a) and (b) words are [+edible water animal]. The (a) words are [+shellfish]. The (b) words are [+fish]. 2. (a) widow, mother, sister, aunt, seamstress (b) widower, father, brother, uncle, tailor The (a) and (b) words are [+human]. The (a) words are [+female]. The (b) words are [+male]. 3. (a) bachelor, son, paperboy, pope, chief (b) bull, rooster, drake, ram, stallion The (a) and (b) words are [+animate] and [+male]. The (a) words are [+human]. The (b) words are [+animal]. 4. (a) table, pencil, cup, house, ship, car (b) milk, tea, wine, beer, water, soft drink The (a) and (b) words are [+inanimate] and [+concrete]. The (a) words are [+solid]. The (b) words are [+liquid]. 5. (a) book, temple, mountain, road, tractor (b) idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear The (a) and (b) words are [+inanimate]. The (a) words are [+concrete thing]. The (b) words are [+abstract notion].
2. 2. 178 6. (a) rose, lily, tulip, daisy, sunflower, violet (b) ash (taàn bì), oak (soài), sycamore (sung daâu), willow (lieãu), beech (soài) (c) pine (thoâng), cedar (tuyeát tuøng), jew (thuûy tuøng), spruce (vaân sam), cypress (baùch) The (a) (b) and (c) words are [+plant]. The (a) words are [+flowering plant]. The (b) words are [+deciduous tree]. The (c) words are [+evergreen tree]. 7. (a) book, letter, encyclopedia, novel, notebook, dictionary (b) typewriter, pencil, ballpoint, crayon, quill, charcoal, chalk The (a) and (b) words are [+non-living thing]. The (a) words are [+thing to read or write]. The (b) words are [+thing used to write or draw with]. 8. (a) walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swim (b) fly, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glide The (a) and (b) words are [+motion] or [+way of movement]. The (a) words are [+movement made without the help of any means]. The(b)wordsare[+movement made with the help of a certain kind of means]. 9. (a) ask, tell, say, talk, converse (b) shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, holler The (a) and (b) words are [+way of talking]. The (a) words are [+generic]. The (b) words are [+specific]. 10. (a) alive, asleep, awake, dead, half-dead, pregnant (b) depressed, bored, excited, upset, amazed, surprised The (a) and (b) words are [+state closely associated with living things]. The (a) words are [+physical state]. The (b) words are [+emotional state]. Exercise 2: Identify the semantic features in each of the following words. 1. Child: [+human], [− − − −mature], [±male], [+innocent]1 1 This semantic feature is optional.
3. 3. 179 2. Aunt: [+human], [±mature], [+female], [+father’s/mother’s sister (-in-law)] 3. Hen: [+animate], [+bird], [+fowl], [+fully grown], [+female] 4. Oak (-tree): [+plant], [+deciduous tree], [+tough hard wood] 5. Flower: [+part of a plant], [+colored], [+usually good-smelling], [+bloom/blossom], [+fruit or seed is developed] 6a. Palm: [+part of a hand], [+inner surface], [+between the wrist and the fingers] 6b. Palm (-tree): [+plant], [+tree] [−branches] [+a mass of large wide leaves at the top], [+in warm or tropical climates] 7. Bachelor: [+human], [+mature], [+male], [+stay single]2 8. Actress: [+human], [+female], [+professionally artistic], [+perform a role] 9. Plod: [+motion], [+walk], [+slowly and laboriously] 10. Ewe: [+animate], [+sheep], [+fully grown], [+female], [+producing wool and meat] 11a. Fly: [+motion], [+through air or space], [+fast], [+wings or a means of transport] 11b. Fly: [+animate], [+insect], [+two wings], [+in and around houses] 12. Stallion: [+animate], [+horse], [+fully grown], [+male], [+for breeding] 13. Police-officer: [+human], [±male], [+member of the police force], [+disciplined] 14. Beauty: [+attractive feature], [+combination of shape, color, behavior, etc.], [+giving pleasure to senses] 15. Imagine: [+mental state], [+form a concept or an image], [+thoughtfulness] 16. Doe: [+animate], [+deer, reindeer, rabbit or hare], [+fully grown], [+female] 17. Drive: [+motion], [+operate/direct], [+related to a vehicle] 18. Home: [+thing], [+place for human habitation], [+closely related to a family or its life] 19. Elm: [+plant], [+deciduous tree], [+large rough-edged leaves], [+tough hard wood] 20. Chalk: [+thing], [+limestone], [+soft], [+white or colored], [+for writing or drawing] 2 This semantic feature is required.
4. 4. 180 21. Rose: [+plant], [+bush/shrub], [+sweet-smelling flowers], [+different colors, usually pinkish or red], [+thorns], [+symbol for love] 22. Chick: [+animate], [+bird], [+fowl], [− − − −fully grown], [±male] 23. Pap: [+thing], [+food], [+soft or semi-liquid], [+for babies or invalids] 24. Tiptoe: [+motion], [+walk], [+on toes], [+silently] 25. Pine(-tree): [+plant], [+evergreen tree], [+needle-shaped leaves], [+pale soft wood] 26. Owe: [+state], [+be in debt], [+obligation/duty], [+pay/repay] 27. Computer: [+thing], [+electric/electronic device], [+storing/processing data], [+making calculations], [+controlling machinery] 28. Honesty: [+abstract notion], [+virtue], [+trustfulness], [+hard to evaluate] 29. Maid: [+human], [+mature], [+female], [+servant] 30. Spinster: [+human], [+mature], [+female], [+stay single] Exercise 3: How can you distinguish the words given in the following table from one another, considering their semantic features? Malay English Vietnamese Chinese anh huynh brother ñeä em muoäi sadara sister chò tyû To distinguish the given words, their one or more prominent semantic features must be considered with care: • Sadara has one prominent semantic feature: [+born by the same parents]. • Brother and sister share their two prominent semantic features: [+born by the same parents] and [±male]. • Anh and chò share their three prominent semantic features: [+born by the same parents], [±male] and [+older] while em is marked by its two prominent semantic features: [+born by the same parents] and [+younger]. That is, to the Vietnamese people, it is unnecessary to distinguish the sex of younger siblings though it is a must whenever they deal with their older siblings.
5. 5. 181 • Huynh, ñeä, tyû and muoäi all share their three prominent semantic features: [+born by the same parents], [±male] and [±older]. Exercise 4: Organise the given words (and probably those of your own) into three semantic fields: shirts, end, short, forward(s), long, hats, lend, coats, shorts, beginning, trousers, amble, out, limp, tiptoe, plod, socks, trudge, borrow, stomp, in, stump, backward(s), and tramp. ANSWER: (1) Articles of clothing: shirts, socks, hats, coats, shorts, trousers, etc. (2) Ways of walking3 : amble, limp, tiptoe, plod, trudge, stomp, stump, tramp, etc. 3 Amble = ride or walk at a slow, leisurely pace: He came ambling down the road. Limp = walk unevenly, as when one foot or leg is hurt or stiff: That dog must be hurt — he’s limping. Plod (along/on) = walk with heavy steps or with difficulty: Labourers plodded home through the muddy fields. Tiptoe = walk quietly and carefully on the tips of one’s toes/with one’s heels not touching the ground: She tiptoed to the bed where the child lay asleep. Trudge = walk slowly or with difficulty because one is tired, on a long journey, etc.: He trudged along for more than 2 miles. Stump = walk stiffly or noisily: They stumped up the hill. He stumped out in fury. Stomp (about, around, off, etc.) = move, dance, or walk with a heavy step (in a specified direction): She stomped about noisily. Tramp = walk with heavy or noisy steps: We could hear him tramping about upstairs. “Stomp, stump, plod, trudge, and tramp all indicate styles of walking with heavy steps. Stomp and stump can both suggest making noise while walking in order to show anger: She slammed the door and stomped/stumped upstairs. Additionally, stump can indicate walking with stiffs legs: stumping up the garden path. Stomp can suggest clumsy and noisy walking or dancing: He looked funny stomping around the dance floor. Plod and trudge indicate a slow weary walk towards a particular destination. Plod suggests a steady pace and trudge suggests greater effort: They had to plod wearily on up the hill. We trudged home through deep snow. Tramp indicates walking over long distances, possibly with no specified destination: They tramped the streets, looking for somewhere to stay the night.” [Crowther (ed.), 1992: 908]
6. 6. 182 (3) Items which form pairs of antonyms: long/short, forward(s)/backward(s), in/out, beginning/end, lend/borrow, etc. Exercise 5: Try to fill in the each of the two blanks with an appropriate word to prove that there is no lexical gap in the given semantic fields. sheep giraffe ram ewe lamb male giraffe female giraffe baby giraffe Exercise 6: What is identified by the word mean or meaning in the following examples, i.e. reference or sense? Write R for reference and S for sense. 1. R; 2. S; 3. S; 4. S; 5. R Exercise 7: Identify all the possible connotations associated with the word Christmas. The word Christmas could call up “images of Christ trees, family gatherings, presents and carols”; “these associations may be specific for a particular culture or group of people; they may even be individual. [Asher and Simpson, 1994: 2155]. Exercise 8: Interpret the meaning the following sentences and state what kind of figure of speech (also called figurative language) used in each of them. 1. When he gets going, Jack is a streak of lightning. Jack is a streak of lightning is a metaphor which means Jack is very fast. 2. I found the fifty-two pounds of books you left for me to carry. Your kindness really moved me. Your kindness really moved me is an expression of irony which means you were not kind to me at all. 3. The man is a demon for work.
7. 7. 183 The man is a demon for work is a metaphor which means the man is an energetic person who works very hard. 4. When you take that course, plan to study thirty hours a day. Study thirty hours a day is an overstatement/a hyperbole which means study for a long time every day. 5. The wind howled angrily around the house all night. The wind is [−animate] and/or [−human] while howled angrily is [+animate] and/or [+human]. Therefore, howled angrily is an expression of personification which means blew strongly. 6. When the White House called, the ambassador went at once. The White House, which is [+sign], is a metonymy meaning the US President, which is [+person]. 7. My dormitory room is like a cave. My dormitory room is like a cave is a simile which means my dormitory room is small and uncomfortable. In this case, my dormitory room is explicitly compared to a cave. 8. Come to the dormitory and see what a cave I live in. A cave is a metaphor which means a small and uncomfortable room. In this case, my dormitory room is implicitly compared to a cave. 9. Dick was fairly pleased when he won the brand-new car in the contest. Fairly pleased is an ironical understatement which means very pleased. 10. If you are not happy with the service, go and talk to the City Hall. The City Hall, which is [+sign], is a metonymy meaning the city’s Mayor, which is [+person]. 11. Man does not live by bread alone.
8. 8. 184 Bread, which is [+part], is a synecdoche which means necessaries or things needed for living, which is [+whole]. 12. We now live under the same roof. Roof is [+part] while house is [+whole]. Therefore, live under the same roof is a synecdoche which means live in the same house. 13. Albert was as sharp as a tack this morning. He answered every question as soon as it was asked. Albert was as sharp as a tack is a simile which means Albert was quick-minded. 14. The river ate the bank away. The river is [−animate] and/or [−human] while ate away is [+animate] and/or [+human]. Therefore, ate the bank away is an expression of personification which means eroded the bank or gradually destroyed the bank. 15. Keep overeating like that and pretty soon you’ll weigh a thousand pounds. Weigh a thousand pounds is an overstatement/a hyperbole which means be too heavy or get too fat. 16. After she heard the good news, she grinned like a mule eating briars. Grinned like a mule eating briars is a simile which means smiled broadly. 17. The captain was in charge of one hundred horses. Horses, which is [+instrument], is a metonymy which means cavalries or soldiers fighting on horseback, which is [+agent]. 18. Joe cried a little when he lost the thousand dollars. Cried a little is an ironical understatement which means cried a lot. 19. You can depend on Gina; she is a rock when trouble comes.
9. 9. 185 She is a rock is a metaphor which means she is strong-minded or she has strong nerves. 20. Life is a dream. There may be two possible ways to interpret this sentence: Life is a dream is a metaphor which means life is short or life passes quickly. Life is a dream is a metaphor which means life is as beautiful as a dream. 21. He’s so hardheaded that he won’t listen to anyone. Hardheaded is an idiom/a dead metaphor which means obstinate or stubborn. 22. Research says that these methods are best. There may be two possible ways to interpret this sentence: • The first way: Research is [−animate] and/or [−human] while says is [+animate] and/or [+human]. Therefore, the whole sentence is an expression of personification which means researchers say that these methods are best. • The second way: Research, which is [+controlled], stands for/substitutes for researchers, which is [+controller]. This is a metonymy. The whole sentence means researchers say that these methods are best. 23. Right at this minute, I could drink a barrel of water without stopping. A barrel of water is an overstatement/a hyperbole which means a lot of water. 24. It is amazing what a great mind he is. A great mind, which is [+part], stands for/substitutes for an erudite scholar, which is [+whole]. This is a synecdoche. The whole sentence means I am amazed by his intellectual power.
10. 10. 186 25. Alice came in gently, like a May breeze. Alice is like a May breeze is a simile which means Alice is as young, fresh, sweet and warm as a breeze signaling the beginning of a summer. 26. Susie is a picture of loveliness in her new dress. Susie is a picture of loveliness is a metaphor which means Susie is very lovely. 27. A thousand thanks are for your kindness. A thousand thanks are for your kindness is an overstatement/a hyperbole which means thank you very much for your kindness. 28. I walked past the big sad mouth which didn’t know what to say then. Mouth, which is [+part], stands for person, which is [+whole]. This is a synecdoche. The whole sentence means I passed by the talkative person who was then too upset to give an immediate response. 29. We are tired to death of such movies. Tired to death is an overstatement/a hyperbole which means extremely bored with. 30. Give every man thine ears, bid a few thy voice. This sentence consists of two metonymies: give every man thine4 ears which means listen to everyone, and bid a few thy voice which means talk to only a few people. The whole sentence means you should listen to everyone but talk to only a few people. 31. There was a storm in Parliament last night. 4 Both thine and thy mean your. Respectively, thine and thy occur before a noun beginning with a vowel and a consonant.
11. 11. 187 A storm is a metaphor which means a heated argument, a bitter disagreement or a terrible conflict. 32. I’m afraid he has misrepresented the facts. He has misrepresented5 the facts is a euphemism which means he has lied or he has told lies. 33. He worked and worked until he breathed his last. Breathed his last is a euphemism which means died. 34. We’ll just have to go our separate ways. Go our separate ways is a metaphor which implies that life is a journey. 35. They were vital, unforgettable matches that gave us a new window on the game. A new window on the game is a metaphor meaning a new understanding of the game. 36. I’ve told you a thousand times not to touch that again. A thousand times is an overstatement/a hyperbole which means more than one time. 37. He is as mute as a fish. He is as mute as a fish is a simile which means he rarely speaks or he is quiet. 38. We stopped to drink in the beautiful scenery. Drink in is a metaphor which means enjoy or admire. In other words, the beautiful scenery is implicitly compared to a delicious drink. 39. His words can be trusted. 5 Mis- is a verb-forming prefix meaning ‘wrongly.’ Re- is another verb- forming prefix meaning ‘again.’
12. 12. 188 His words stands for/substitutes for that person himself. This is a metonymy. The whole sentence means you can trust him. 40. The police team has cemented close ties with the hospital staff. - Cemented literally means joined (the police team and the hospital staff) together as with cement. - Cemented in this context is a metaphor which means firmly established or strengthened. The whole sentence means close connections have been established between the police team and the hospital staff. 41. The boss gave her a hot look. A hot look is a metaphor which means an angry look. The whole sentence means the boss looked at her angrily. 42. He could not bridle his anger. - Bridle literally means put on a horse part of a harness, including the metal bit for the mouth, the straps and the reins. - Bridle in this context is a metaphor which means control or restrain. The whole sentence means he failed to control his anger. 43. He attacked every weak point in my argument. - Attacked literally means made a violent attempt to defeat (somebody). - Attacked is a metaphor which means criticized (somebody) severely. - Attacked every weak point in my argument is another metaphor which implies that argument is war. The whole sentence means he severely criticized every weak point in my argument.
13. 13. 189 44. In 1940, after the fall of France, England had no defense left but her ancient valor. The fall of France is a metaphor which means the failure of France. England is compared to a woman who had no defense left but her former bravery in war. This is an expression of personification. The whole sentence means after the failure of France in 1940, England could not defend herself against her war enemy/enemies. 45. The fire snaps6 and crackles7 like a whip8 ; its sharp9 acrid10 smoke stings11 the eyes. It is the fire that drives12 a thorn13 of memory in my heart. - In the fire crackles like a whip, the sound of fire is explicitly compared to that of a whip. This is a simile. - Smoke and fire are each given a human act: sting the eyes and drives a thorn in the heart. These are two expressions of personification. 6 Snaps = makes sudden sharp sounds 7 Crackles = makes small cracking sounds as when dry sticks burn 8 A whip = a length of cord or a strip of leather fastened to a handle, used especially for urging on an animal (especially a horse) 9 Sharp (adj., usually attributive, of sounds) = shrill, piercing: a sharp cry of distress, the sharp raucous cawing of a crow 10 Acrid (adj) = having a strong bitter smell or taste: acrid fumes from burning rubber 11 A sting = a sharp pointed organ of some insects, e.g. bees, wasps, etc., used for wounding or injecting poison Stings = pricks or wounds (somebody) with or as if with a sting; causes (somebody) to feel sharp pain: A bee stung me on the cheek. 12 Drives = forces (something) to go in a specified direction or into a specified position: drive a nail into wood 13 A thorn = a sharp pointed growth on the stem of a plant: The thorns on the roses scratch her hands
14. 14. 190 - A thorn of memory is a metaphor which means some unpleasant thing, event, situation, etc. that one can hardly forget. The whole sentence means the fire, with its sharp acrid smoke and small crackling sounds, reminds me of some unpleasant thing that I can hardly forget. 46. The organization is keeping the brake on pay rises. Keep the brake on pay rises is a metaphor which means control pay rises. The whole sentence means the organization is controlling the increase in the amounts/sums of money paid for its current activities. 47. Her father is a captain of industry. This sentence consists of an idiom/a dead metaphor — a captain of industry, which means one who manages a large industrial company. 48. I am the captain of my soul. This sentence consists of two metonymies: (1) The captain, which is [+specific]14 , stands for the leader, which is [+generic]. (2) My soul, which is [+more abstract], stands for my life, which is [+less abstract]. The whole sentence means I can decide my own life or I can control myself. 49. To fall out of a tree in one’s early childhood is not a particularly reassuring experience. To fall out of a tree is a metaphor which means to be exposed to real life. 14 Captain (n) 1 person in charge of a ship or civil aircraft. 2 (a) officer in the British Army between the ranks of lieutenant and major; (b) officer in the British Navy between the ranks of commander and admiral. 3 person given authority over a group or team: He was (the) captain of the football team for five years.
15. 15. 191 The whole sentence means it is terrible to be exposed to real life in one’s early childhood without any parental protection. 50. No man is an island: entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent. This sentence consists of two metonymies: (1) An island, which is [+concrete], stands for isolation, which is [+abstract]; (2) The continent, which is [+concrete], stands for community, which is [+abstract]. The whole sentence means no one can isolate himself from the community he has been living in. Exercise 9: Each of the following sentences presents a pair of words. Which of them is a superordinate and which, a hyponym? 1. She reads books all day – mostly novels. 2. A crocodile is a reptile. 3. There’s no flower more beautiful than a tulip. 4. He likes all vegetables except carrots. ANSWER: Exercise 10: Draw a chart to show the relationship between a superordinate and a hyponym. SUPERORDINATE HYPONYM 1. books novels 2. reptile crocodile 3. flower tulip 4. vegetables carrots
16. 16. 192 1. luggage and suitcase luggage suitcase briefcase handbag (or purse) trunk rucksack (or backpack) ……… 2. green vegetable and bean green vegetable cabbage lettuce Brussels sprout bean broccoli ……… 3. animal and foal animal fish bird insect bug mammal reptile ……… human animal (beast) dog horse sheep ……… stallion mare foal 4. animal and child animal fish bird insect bug mammal reptile ……… human animal (beast) man woman child 5. fowl and rooster fowl turkey chicken goose duck ……… rooster (American)/cock (British) hen chick
17. 17. 193 6. plant and coconut plant flowering plant bush/shrub tree moss grass ……… pine palm gum ……… palm coconut betle nut sago ……… 7. plant and rose plant tree bush/shrub flowering plant moss grass ……… lily daisy violet tulip rose ……… 8. vocal organ and tongue tip vocal organ lip tongue nose larynx lower jaw ……… tongue tip tongue blade tongue front tongue back tongue root 9. head and eyelash head face hair skull brain ……… mouth nose eye cheek forehead chin ……… eyeball eyehole eyelash eyelid pupil ………
18. 18. 194 10. furniture and dressing table furniture seat table bed storage wardrobe dressing table chest of drawers writing desk Welsh dresser ……… 11. vehicle and convertible vehicle bus truck car lorry bicycle train ……… hardtop convertible sports car ……… 12. vocalize15 and croon16 vocalize speak read aloud sing articulate ……… croon yodel hum ……… Exercise 11: The following pairs of words are partial synonyms, i.e. they do not share all their senses. For each pair, (a) gives a sentence in which the two can be used interchangeably; (b) gives another sentence in which only one of them can be used. 15 Vocalize = say or sing (sounds or words); utter 16 Croon (sth) (to sb) = sing or say (sth) softly and gently: croon a sentimental tune; croon soothing to a child. Yodel (also yodle) = sing (a song) or utter a musical call, with frequent changes from the normal voice to high falsetto notes, in the traditional Swiss manner. Hum (sth) (to sb) = sing (a tune) with close lips: I don’t know the words of the song but I can hum it to you.
19. 19. 195 1. strong/powerful (a) There are strong/powerful arguments for and against capital punishment. (b) He loves strong coffee. 2. ripe/mature (a) This cheese is ripe/mature enough for us to eat. (b) We cannot eat this fruit because it isn’t ripe yet. 3. broad/wide (a) The Thames is a broad/wide river. (b) My boss is not broad-minded. 4. soil/earth (a) We can plant the trees on this good soil/earth. (b) The rocket fell back to earth. 5. edge/side (a) This house is at the edge/side of the forest. (b) I will be on your side. 6. permit/allow (a) Photography is not permitted/allowed in this area. (b) If the weather permits, we’ll go boating. Exercise 12: Identify various meanings of each of the two given polysemous words and then point out which meaning exemplify partial synonymy. ANSWER: 1. deep (i) This is a deep well. (Deep means extending a long way from top to bottom) (ii) He only gave a deep sigh. (Deep means taking in or going out a lot of air) (iii) You have my deep sympathy. (Deep means profound) (iv) With his hands deep in his pockets, he went away. (Deep means far down in something) The third meaning of deep is synonymous with profound.
20. 20. 196 2. broad (i) The river is very broad at this point. (Broad means wide or large in size from one side to the other.) (ii) He just gave a broad smile. (Broad means clear, obvious or unmistakable) (iii) Luckily, my boss is a man of broad views. (Broad means liberal, tolerant) (iv) He speaks English with a broad Yorkshire accent. (Broad means having many sounds typical of a particular region) The first meaning of broad is synonymous with wide. Exercise 13: Are the following pairs of words binary antonyms? 1. No; 2. Yes; 3. No; 4. Yes; 5. Yes; 6. No (Gradable) Exercise 14: Are the following pairs of words relational antonyms? 1. Yes; 2. No (Gradable); 3. No (Binary); 4. Yes; 5. Yes; 6. Yes Exercise 15: Identify the continuous scale of values between the two given words. 1. love -- hate: love, like, be indifferent to, dislike, hate 2. hot -- cold: hot, warm, tepid (also called lukewarm), cool, cold 3. big -- small: big, rather big/fairly big, medium-sized, rather small/fairly small, small 4. rich -- poor: rich, wealthy, meager, poor 5. none -- all: none, few/little, some (= a few/a little), half, most, almost all, all 6. possibly -- certainly: possibly, probably, quite probably, almost certainly, certainly 7. never--always: never, rarely/seldom, occasionally, sometimes, often, usually/frequently, always Exercise 16: State whether the following pairs of antonyms are binary, gradable or relational by writing B (binary), G (gradable) or R (relational): 1. G; 2. B; 3. B; 4. G; 5. R; 6. G; 7. B; 8. R; 9. R; 10. R; 11. G; 12. G; 13. B; 14. B; 15. G; 16 R
21. 21. 197 Exercise 17: Give the phonemic transcription shared by two members of each of the given pairs of words to identify them as a pair of homophones: The first one is done as an example. 1. altar /‘0:lt6(r)/ alter 11. herd /h3:d/ heard 2. beech /bi:t∫/ beach 12. knight /na1t/ night 3. boar /b0: (r)/ bore 13. nose /n6υz/ knows 4. coarse /k0:s/ course 14. leek /li:k/ leak 5. crews /kru:z/ cruise 15. maid /me1d/ made 6. deer /d16(r)/ dear 16. pail /pe1l/ pale 7. draft /dra:ft/ draught 17. reign /re1n/ rain 8. fare /fe6(r)/ fair 18. scene /si:n/ seen 9. flour /‘flaυ6(r)/ flower 19. thrown /8r6υn/ throne 10. grate /gre1t/ great 20. whole /h6υl/ hole Exercise 18: Give the phonemic transcription shared be two members of each of the given pairs of words to identify them as a pair of homonyms: The first one is done as an example. 1. Classified as two homonyms are the verb lie1, which means tell lies, and the verb lie2, which means put one’s body on a horizontal surface; both being pronounced /la1/ in RP. 2. Classified as two homonyms are the noun bat1, which means the small mouse-like animal that flies at night and feeds on fruit and insects, and the noun bat2, which means a tool for hitting in baseball; both being pronounced /b`t/ in RP. 3. Classified as two homonyms are the adverb too1, which means more than should be, and the adverb too2, which means also; both being pronounced /tu:/ in RP. 4. Classified as two homonyms are the noun might, which means great strength or power, and the modal verb might, which expresses possibility; both being pronounced /ma1t/ in RP.
22. 22. 198 5. Classified as two homonyms are the adjective bare, which means without the usual covering or protection, and the verb bare, which means uncover or reveal (something); both being pronounced /be6(r)/ in RP. 6. Classified as two homonyms are the noun sound, which means thing that can be heard, and the adjective sound, which means healthy or in good condition; both being pronounced /saυnd/ in RP. 7. Classified as two homonyms are the verb lead in Does this road lead to town and the noun lead in He’s the chief trouble-maker; the others just follow his lead; both being pronounced /li:d/ in RP. Exercise 19: What is the relationship between the words in the following pairs? If the words are antonyms, specify what kind of antonyms they are. The italic words in bracket are to clarify the meaning in question of the given words. The first one is done as an example. 1. true -- false: binary antonymy 2. gloom -- darkness: synonymy 3. dark (as in a dark room) -- dark (as in Don’t look on the dark side of things): poslysemy 4. wind (as in The wind is blowing hard)-- wind (as in wind one’s watch): homography 5. deny -- admit: binary antonymy 6. host -- guest: relational antonymy 7. sow (as in sow a field with wheat) -- sow (meaning a female pig): homography 8. pupil (at a school)--pupil (of an eye): homonymy 9. cheap -- expensive: gradable antonymy 10. coarse -- course: homophony Exercise 20: Explain the lexical ambiguity in each of the following sentences by providing two sentences that paraphrase its two different meanings. The first one is done as an example.
23. 23. 199 1. They WERE WAITING at the bank. Meaning one: They WERE WAITING at the financial institution. Meaning two: They WERE WAITING at the shore of the river. 2. The long drill IS boring. Meaning one: The long tool for drilling MAKES me bored/tired. In other words, the tool for drilling IS blunt/not sharp enough. Meaning two: The long training exercise IS uninteresting/dull/tedious. 3. When he got the clear title to the land, it WAS a good deed. Meaning one: When he got the clear title to the land, it WAS a good act. Meaning two: When he got the clear title to the land, it WAS a great achievement. 4. The proprietor of the fish store WAS the sole owner. Meaning one: The proprietor of the fish store WAS the only owner. Meaning two: The proprietor of the fish store WAS single/unmarried. 5. We LIKE the ball. Meaning one: We LIKE the sphere. Meaning two: We LIKE the formal social gathering for dancing. 6. They PASSED the port at night. Meaning one: They WENT by the harbour at night. Meaning two: They DELIVERED the Portuguese wine 17 at night. 7. The captain CORRECTED the list. Meaning one: The captain CORRECTED the tilt 18 . Meaning two: The captain CORRECTED the inventory 19 . 8. He WAS KNOCKED OVER by the punch. 17 Strong, sweet (usually dark red) wine made in Portugal 18 the listing position = the position of a ship that leans over one side 19 the detailed list of task done during a journey
24. 24. 200 Meaning one: He WAS KNOCKED OVER because of a blow given with the fist. Meaning two: He WAS KNOCKED OVER near/beside the tool/the machine for cutting holes in leather, metal, paper, etc. 9. The camel SWALLOWED the chocolate and then ate it. Meaning one: The camel GULPED the chocolate down and then ate it. Meaning two: The camel easily BELIEVED something to be chocolate and then ate it. Exercise 21: Explain the lexical ambiguity in each of the two given sentences. Does polysemy or homonymy contribute to such ambiguity. (1) She cannot bear children. (2) The cat sat on the mat. We can interpret (1) in two different ways because the two verbs bear — bear1, which means givebirthto and bear2, whish means tolerate — are two homonyms. We can interpret (2) in two different ways because the noun mat is a polysemous word which has two slightly different but closely related meanings: (i) piece of material, made of straw, fibre, rushes, etc. used to cover part of a floor; (ii) small piece of material placed under a hot dish, a glass, a vase, etc. Exercise 22: In what way are homonyms related to lexical ambiguity? Homonyms can create lexical ambiguity. She cannot bear children, for example, is lexically ambiguous because the sentence contains one ambiguous word — bear. The sentence may mean either she is unable to give birth to children or she cannot tolerate children. The lexical ambiguity of the sentence in question is due to the two homonyms, bear1 and bear2, with two quite different meanings. Exercise 23: In what way is a polysemous word related to lexical ambiguity? A polysemous word can create lexical ambiguity. That robot is bright, for example, is lexically ambiguous because it contains one ambiguous word — bright. The sentence may mean either that robot is shining or that robot is intelligent.
25. 25. 201 The lexical ambiguity of the sentence in question is due to the two slightly different but closely related meanings of the polysemous word bright — shining and intelligent. Exercise 24: Explain the structural ambiguity in each of the following sentences. 1. The drunkard visitor rolled up the carpet. 6. They are cooking bananas. 2. Is he really that kind? 7. They are moving sidewalks. 3. My fianceùe is reserved. 8. John loves Richard more than Martha. 4. I saw her slip. 9. Old men and women will be served first. 5. I saw her duck 10. The thing that bothered Bill was crouching under the table. 1(a) The drunkard visitor FOLDED the carpet over on itself. (Rolled up is a transitive separable phrasal verb and the carpet is a noun phrase functioning as the direct object of the verb head.) 1(b) The drunkard visitor TURNED over and over up the carpet. (Rolled is an intransitive verb and up the carpet is a prepositional phrase functioning as the adverbial adjunct of place of the verb head.) S NP1 VP1 S Vgrp NP2 NP1 VP1 [mono-trans] [dO] VP2 AdvP [op A of place] 1(a)The drunkard visitor ROLLED UP the carpet. Vgrp [intrans] PP 1(b) The drunkard visitor ROLLED up the carpet.
26. 26. 202 2(a) Is he really that kind? That is a demonstrative adjective, a pre-nominal modifier of the noun kind. 2(a) means ‘Does he really belong to that kind of people?’ 2(b) Is he really that kind? That is an adverb of degree meaning ‘to such a degree’, pre-modifying the adjective kind. 2(b) means ‘Is he really so kind?’ 3(a) My fianceùe IS RESERVED. Reserved is a past participle, part of the finite verb is reserved. 3(a) means ‘My fianceùe is kept only for me.’ In other words, you should always stay away from her. 3(b) My fianceùe IS reserved. Reservedisanadjectivemeaning‘quiet’. 3(b)means‘My fianceùerarely talks.’ 4(a) I SAW her slip. Slip is a noun meaning ‘petticoat; loose sleeveless garment worn under a dress.’ 4(a) means ‘We saw the petticoat that belongs to her.’ 4(b) I SAW her SLIP. Slip is a verb meaning ‘lose one’s balance and (nearly) fall in this way.’ 4(b) means ‘We saw her lose her balance and nearly fall.’ 5(a) We SAW her duck. Duck is a noun meaning ‘domestic water bird.’ 5(a) means ‘We saw the domestic water bird that belongs to her.’ 5(b) We SAW her DUCK. Duck is a verb meaning ‘move (one’s head) down quickly, to avoid being seen or hit.’ 5(b)means‘Wesawherlowerherhead.’ 6(a) They ARE COOKING bananas. Cooking is a present participle, part of the finite verb are cooking. 6(a) means ‘Bananas are cooked.’ 6(b) They ARE cooking bananas. Cooking is a gerund, a pre-nominal modifier of bananas. 6(b) means ‘They are bananas for cooking.’
27. 27. 203 7(a) They ARE MOVING sidewalks. Moving is a present participle, part of the finite verb are moving. 7(a) means ‘the sidewalks are moved.’ 7(b) They ARE moving sidewalks. Moving is a present participle, a pre-nominal modifier of sidewalks. 7(b) means ‘they are the sidewalks that are movable.’ 8(a) John LOVES Richard more S1 V1 dO1 than Martha (LOVES Richard). S2 V2 dO2 In 8(a), loves Richard is omitted. 8(b) John LOVES Richard more S1 V1 dO1 than (he LOVES) Martha. S2 V2 dO2 In 8(b), he loves is omitted. 9(a)Old men and women WILL BE SERVED first. Old only modifies men. 9(a) means ‘we first serve the men who are old and all of the women, irrespective of their age.’ 9(b)Old men and women WILL BE SERVED first. Old modifies men and women. 9(b) means ‘we first serve the men and women who are all old.’ 10(a) The thing that bothered Bill WAS CROUCHING under the table. Crouching is a present participle, part of the finite verb was crouching. 10(b) means ‘Bill was annoyed by the thing that was crouching under the table.’ 10(b) The thing that bothered Bill WAS crouching under the table. Crouching is a gerund, head of the phrase crouching under the table. 10(b) means ‘it is crouching under the table that annoyed Bill.’ Exercise 25: Explain the anomaly of each of the following sentences. 1. Christopher is killing phonemes. This sentence is semantically anomalous because killing and phonemes are not semantically compatible to be combined in this way. Kill means ‘cause the death of a living organism’ whereas phonemes are non-living things — things that cannot be killed.
28. 28. 204 2. My brother is a spinster. This sentence is semantically anomalous because my brother is [+male] whereas a spinster is [+female]. 3. The boy swallowed the chocolate and then chewed it. This sentence is semantically anomalous because of the wrong order of the two verb phrases — swallowed the chocolate and chewed it. 4. Babies can lift one ton. This sentence is semantically anomalous because babies are [+young] and [− − − −strong]. How can they lift a weight of 2,240 pounds in Britain or of 2,000 pounds in the U.S.A.? 5. Puppies are human. This sentence is semantically anomalous because puppies are [+animate] and thus [− human]. 6. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor. This sentence is semantically anomalous because both my unmarried sister and a bachelor are [+single], and thus they can’t be husband and wife. 7. The bigger key and John opened the door. This sentence is semantically anomalous because its instrument (the bigger key) cannot be conjoined with its agent (John). 8. James sliced the ideas. This sentence is semantically anomalous because the ideas are [+abstract notion] while only concrete things that are long, round, and soft enough like a sausage or a tomato can be sliced. 9. Jack’s courage chewed the bones. This sentence is semantically anomalous because Jack’s courage is [+abstract notion], and thus it could not chew anything.
29. 29. 205 10. I hear the cloud. This sentence is semantically anomalous because “hear, presumably, presupposes that its object is audible” [Palmer, 1981: 170] while the cloud is [− − − − audible]. 11. The tiger remained alive for an hour after the hunter killed it. This sentence is semantically anomalous because no living organism can remain alive after being killed. In fact, the tiger died right at the moment the hunter killed it. Exercise 26: How can each of the given sentences be changed to avoid anomaly? 1. Christopher is killing himself. 2. My brother is a bachelor. 3. The boy chewed the chocolate and then swallowed it. 4. This crane can lift one ton. 5. Puppies are not human. 6. My unmarried sister will be married to a bachelor. 7. John (the agent) opened the door with the bigger key (the instrument). 8. James sliced the tomatoes or James raised/ could finally come up with the ideas. 9. Jack chewed the bones. 10. I hear the piece of news already / I see the cloud. 11. The tiger remained alive for an hour after the hunter injured it.
30. 30. 206 Exercise 27: Do the two following sentences have the same proposition? (1) Mr Dindlay killed Janet. (2) Mr Dindlay caused Janet to die. No, they don’t. Killed somebody in (1) implies [+intentionally] whereas caused somebody to die in (2) implies [+accidentally]. The semantic feature [±intention] is crucial in distinguishing the different propositions in (1-2). Exercise 28: Explain why the two members of each of the following pairs of sentences do not share the same proposition. 1(a) John is the parent of James. 1(b) James is the parent of John. 3(a) The fly was on the wall. 3(b) The wall was under the fly. 2(a) The hunter bit the lion. 2(b) The lion bit the hunter. 4(a) Jack was injured by a stone. 4(b) Jack was injured with a stone. ANSWER: The two pairs of sentences marked 1(a-b) and 2(a-b) are not related to each other. In other words, they indicate different states of affairs: 1(a) tells us about John, 1(b) tells us about James, 2(a) tells us about the hunter, and 2(b) tells us about the lion. The pair of sentences marked 3(a-b) expresses different propositions. On the one hand, the preposition on in 3(a) indicates that the fly was in a position that allows it to touch the wall. On the other hand, the preposition under in 3(b) indicates that though the wall was in a position directly below the fly, there was no touching between them. The semantic feature [±touching] is crucial in distinguishing different propositions in 3(a-b). The preposition by in 4(a) tells us that a stone fell and accidentally injured Jack whereas the preposition with in 4(b) implies that somebody intentionally used a stone as a means to injure Jack. The semantic feature [±intention] is crucial in distinguishing different propositions in 4(a-b).
31. 31. 207 Exercise 29: Fill in the following chart given by Hurford and Heasley [1984: 23] with ‘+’ or ‘–’ as appropriate. Thus, for example, if it makes sense to think of a proposition being in a particular regional accent, put a ‘+’ in the appropriate box; if not put a ‘–.’ Utterances Sentences Propositions Can be loud or quiet + – – Can be grammatical or not + + – Can be true or false + + + In a particular regional accent + – – In a particular language + + – Exercise 30: Circle the following sentences A for analytic, S for synthetic or C for contradiction, as appropriate. 1. A; 2. S; 3. A; 4. S; 5. S; 6. S; 7. A; 8. C; 9. A; 10. S; 11. S; 12. A; 13. C; 14. S; 15. S Exercise 31: The following pairs are paraphrases of each other. Identify the way employed to paraphrase them. - Change individual words by using synonyms: 1-7(a-b) - Change individual words by using relational antonyms: 8-10(a-b) - Change sentence structure: 11-16(a-b) and 17(a-d) - Change both individual words and sentence structure: 18-25(a-b) Exercise 32: Use ⇒ to show one-way entailment and ⇔ to show two-way entailment in each of the following pairs of sentences: - One-way entailment (⇒): 1-5(a-b) and 11-15(a-b) - Two-way entailment (⇔): 6-10(a-b) and 16-20(a-b) Exercise 33: What sense relation holds between the two sentences of each pair: - 1(a-b) and 7-8(a-b) are the paraphrases of each other. - 2(a-b) and 9-10(a-b) contradict each other. - Respectively, 3-6(a) asymmetrically entail 3-6(b)
32. 32. 208 Exercise 34: Identify the presupposition(s) in each of the following sentences. 1. ‘I am sorry I cannot find your book right now.’ The utterance presupposes that you have/own a book, and you have lent it to me. 2. ‘On the occasion of my friend's birthday, I intend to buy her a new vase.’ The utterance presupposes that (1) I have a friend, (2) soon comes her birthday, and (3) she has a vase already. 3. ‘The exam is not so difficult.’ The utterance presupposes that there is an exam and that the hearer already knows what the exam is. The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows what the exam is. 4. ‘She is not happy about the chemistry course she’s taking.’ The utterance presupposes that she’s taking a chemistry course. The utterance presupposes that there is a chemistry course and she’s taking it. 5. ‘We haven’t heard anything from Barbara.’ The utterance presupposes that the hearer already knows who Barbara is. The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows who Barbara is. 6. ‘They were rich.’ The utterance presupposes that the hearer already knows who they are. The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows who they are. 7. ‘Can you stop playing with your cat?’ The utterance presupposes that you have a cat, and you’re playing with him/her. 8. ‘She was not aware that her son had an accident.’ The utterance presupposes her son had an accident. The utterance presupposes that she has a son, and he had an accident. 9. ‘The explosion was so loud that it could be heard from miles away.’ The utterance presupposes that there was an explosion somewhere. 10. ‘I wish I had not booked the tickets.’
33. 33. 209 The utterance presupposes that I booked the tickets. (The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows what the tickets are.) 11. ‘Tom might find the chocolate cake in the kitchen.’ The utterance presupposes that there is a chocolate cake in the kitchen. 12. ‘You will be amazed when you see the view.’ The utterance presupposes that you will see a beautiful view. The utterance presupposes that there is a beautiful view somewhere and that you will see the view soon. 13. ‘I am so sorry, I am in a hurry and I can’t answer your question right now.’ The utterance presupposes that you’ve asked me a question. 14. ‘She was not aware that it would hurt her so much.’ The utterance presupposes that it (did) hurt her very much. 16. ‘Could you drive me to the airport?’ The utterance presupposes that the hearer already knows what the airport is and where it is located. 17. ‘It took us two days to come back from Hanoi by train.’ The utterance presupposes that we once went to Hanoi. 18. ‘It is going to rain for a long time.’ (a prediction) The utterance presupposes that it is raining now or it has been raining. 19. ‘I am going to have a final examination in Semantics.’ (Near future with arrangement) The utterance presupposes that I haven’t taken the final exam in Semantics yet. 20. ‘We are going to be teachers of English.’ The utterance presupposes that we haven’t been teachers of English yet. The utterance presupposes (1) that the hearer already knows who the other members of this group are and (2) that the persons in question haven’t been teachers of English yet. 21. ‘I think I will pass the exam.’
34. 34. 210 The utterance presupposes that there was an exam, and I have taken it. The utterance presupposes that there will be an exam soon, and I’m going to take it. 22. ‘I hope to have a good result for this exam.’ The utterance presupposes that there was an exam, and I have taken it. The utterance presupposes that there will be an exam soon, and I’m going to take it. 23. ‘But before your encouragement, we would have given up.’ The utterance presupposes that you encouraged us. 24. ‘I got an excellent mark for my essay last time.’ The utterance presupposes that I wrote/ I had written an essay. 25. ‘I missed my class on Monday because I overslept.’ The utterance presupposes that I had a class on Monday. 26. ‘My sister is going to graduate from university.’ The utterance presupposes that I have a sister, and she hasn’t graduated from university yet. 27. ‘I've got a good mark for the exam in American Literature.’ The utterance presupposes that there was an exam in American Literature, and I have taken it. 28. ‘I am going to have a new grammar book.’ The utterance presupposes that I have a grammar book, and I haven’t bought any new one yet. 29. ‘When did you give up teaching?’ The utterance presupposes that you gave up teaching. 30. ‘When did you stop beating your wife?’ The utterance presupposes that you once beat your wife, and you stopped beating her. 31. ‘Fred continued/didn’t continue speaking.’
35. 35. 211 The utterance presupposes that Fred was speaking previously. (The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows who Fred is.) 32. ‘I cleaned/didn’t clean the room.’ The utterance presupposes that the room was dirty. (The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows what the room is.) 33. ‘He killed/didn’t kill the bird.’ The utterance presupposes that the bird was alive. (The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows what the bird is.) 34. ‘What was John worried about?’ The utterance presupposes that John was worried. (The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows who John is.) 35. ‘Bill drank another glass of beer?’ The utterance presupposes that Bill had drunk at least one. (The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows who Bill is.) 36. ‘Could you lend me the novel [when you finish it]?’ (non-fact → fact: + → − − − −) you finish the novel The utterance presupposes that you haven’t finished (reading) the novel yet. (The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows what the novel is.) 37. ‘I can’t guess when the rain stops?’ the rain stops (non-fact → fact: − − − − → +) The utterance presupposes that rain is falling / it is raining. 38. ‘Please take me to the circus again.’ The utterance presupposes that the speaker was at the circus before. The utterance presupposes that the speaker has been to the circus before/ at least once. The utterance presupposes that the hearer has taken the speaker to the circus before/at least once. (The speaker assumes that the hearer already knows what the circus is.)
36. 36. 212 39. ‘He pretended to be pleased with the gift.’ The utterance presupposes that he was not pleased with the gift. 40. ‘If only you had taken his offer.’ The utterance presupposes that you didn’t take his offer. Exercise 35: Which of the following utterances share the same presupposition? The utterances marked (2), (3), (4), (5), and (7) all presuppose that Mike smashed the television set whereas the utterances marked (1) and (6) both presuppose that the speaker does not know whether (or not) Mike smashed the television set. Exercise 36: Write down one implicature that can be drawn from the second speaker’s response in each of the following conversations: (1) Mary: ‘Did you manage to fix that leak?’ Jim: ‘I tried to.’ His utterance may implicate that Jim did not fix the leak. (2) Steve: ‘What happened to your flowers?’ Jane: ‘A dog got into the garden.’ Jane’s utterance may implicate that the dog was not Jane’s and that her flowers got destroyed. (3) Laura: ‘Who used all the printer paper?’ Dick: ‘I used some of it.’ His utterance may implicate that Dick did not use all the paper. (4) Gina: ‘I hear you’re always late with the rent.’ Robin: ‘Well, sometimes I am.’ His utterance may implicate that Robin is not always late with the rent. (5) Jenny: ‘Mike and Annie should be here by now. Was their plane late?’ Alfred: ‘Possibly.’ His utterance may implicate that Alfred’s not certain that the plane was late.
37. 37. 213 (6) Gwen: ‘This cheese looks funny. The label said not to store the cheese in the freezer.’ Alvin: ‘Yeah, I did see the label.’ His utterance may implicate that Alvin did not freeze the cheese. (7) Mat: ‘What’s with your mother?’ Bob: ‘Let’s go to the garden.’ His utterance may implicate that Bob cannot talk about his mother’s problem in the very place. (8) Carmen: ‘Did you buy the car?’ Maria: ‘It cost twice as much as I thought it would.’ Her utterance may implicate that Maria did not buy the car. (9) Robert: ‘Where’s the salad dressing?’ Gabriela: ‘We’ve run out of olive oil.’ Gabriela’s utterance may implicate that there is not any salad dressing left. (10) Maggie: ‘The bathroom’s flooded!’ Jim: ‘Someone must have left the tap on.’ His utterance may implicate that Jim did not leave the tap on. (11) Austin: ‘Want some fudge brownies?’ Jenny: ‘There must be 20,000 calories there.’ Her utterance may implicate that Jenny does not want any fudge brownies. (12) Alice: ‘Have you seen my sweater?’ Max: ‘There’s a sweater on the sofa.’ His utterance may implicate that Max is not sure whether the sweater on the sofa is Alice’s. (13) Phil’s mother: ‘How did you do on these exams?’ Phil: ‘I failed physics.’ His utterance may implicate that Phil passed/did not fail the other exams. (14) Paul: ‘I didn’t take it.’ Virginia: ‘Why do you always lie?’ Virginia’s utterance may implicate that it is Paul who took it.
38. 38. 214 (15) Tom: ‘It works now.’ Janet: ‘When did Eric fix it?’ Janet’s utterance may implicate that it is Eric, not Tom, who fixed it. (16) Liza: ‘I hear you’ve invited Mat and Chris.’ Ed: ‘I didn’t invite Mat.’ His utterance may implicate that Ed invited Chris. (17) A: ‘What are the Nelsons like?’ B: ‘They were rich.’ B’s utterance may implicate that the Nelsons are not rich any more. (18) A: ‘What is this examination in Semantics like?’ B: ‘It is so easy this time.’ B’s utterance may implicate that the last examination in Semantics was really difficult. (19) A: ‘Did you get the milk and the eggs?’ B: ‘I got the milk.’ B’s utterance may implicate that he/she did not get the eggs. (20) A: ‘Did Carmen like the party?’ B: ‘She left after an hour.’ B’s utterance may implicate that Carmen did not like the party. Exercise 37: In each case below decide which maxim has not been observed and what conversational implicature might be drawn. Background information is given in square brackets. (1) is a flouting of the maxim of Relevance. If meat had been the main course, A would probably draw the implicature that B didn’t like the dinner. (2) is a flouting of the maxim of Manner. Since B could not help being unclear, A would probably draw the implicature that B is a bit dubious about drinking that cocktail. (3) is a flouting of the maxim of Quality. B can only be co-operative if A would draw the implicature that B was very tired.
39. 39. 215 (4) is a flouting of the maxim of Relevance. B’s exam is not apparently relevant to a discussion about going to the movies. A would draw the implicature that B is not going to the movies. (5) is a flouting of the maxim of Quantity. Stating that a barbecue is an outdoor party is apparently both too informative (since people all know that a barbecue is an outdoor party) and not informative enough since B has not directly answered the question. A would draw the implicature that B is possibly not coming to the barbecue. (6) is a flouting of the maxim of Quantity. The student is providing much more information than is normally required in this situation. The teacher would probably draw the implicature that the student was bored and “counted the minutes” until the end of the lecture. (7) is a flouting of the maxim of Quantity. The small boy is unhelpful in someway because he fails to give enough information explicitly requested by the policeman, i.e. the boy does not say anything about his father, who is in fact at home. (8) is a flouting of the maxim of Quality. The son refused to release the name of the one who put the ferret in the bathtub though he certainly knows who did it. A would draw the implicature that it is not B who put the ferret in the bathtub. Exercise 38: In each of the following decide whether each of the inferences in brackets is a presupposition (P) or an implicature (I) derived from the underlined utterance. 1. P; 2. P; 3. I; 4. I; 5. P; 6. I, 7. P Exercise 39: In each of the following decide whether each of the inferences in brackets is a presupposition (P) or an implicature (I). 1. P; 2. I; 3. I; 4. I; 5. I; 6. P
40. 40. 216 Exercise 40: Give a situation in which each of the following utterances occurs, interpret its meaning and then classify it according to different types of speech acts. 1. ‘Let’s go to our place for a beer.’ A: ‘Let’s go to our place for a beer.’ B: ‘All right.’ A informally invites B to go and have a glass of beer. This is A DIRECTIVE. 2. ‘I don’t know how to answer this question.’ A: ‘Why did you divorce her?’ B: ‘I don’t know how to answer this question.’ (By acknowledging his failure to give an appropriate answer to A’s question,) B indirectly conceals the real reason of the divorce from his ex-wife. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 3. ‘Mind your head!’ A: ‘Mind your head!’ B: ‘Thanks for your timely warning.’ A directly warns B of a danger. This is A DIRECTIVE. 4. ‘How nice to see you!’ A: ‘How nice to see you!’ B: ‘Yes, it’s been quite a while.’ A greets B in a friendly and somewhat surprising manner. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 5. ‘Who will believe this story?’ A: ‘To make a long story short, Ed’s girlfriend falls in love with Ed’s younger brother.’ B: ‘Who will believe this story?’ (By making a Wh-question which needs no answer,) B indirectly shows his or her doubt about such a crazy story. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 6. ‘Is it right to cheat in any exam?’
41. 41. 217 Student [taking an exam]: ‘I’ve just asked my neighbor for a correction pen.’ Teacher: ‘Is it right to cheat in any exam?’ (= ‘It is quite wrong to cheat in any exam.’) The teacher indirectly says that cheating is not accepted in any exam. This is A REPRESENTATIVE. 7. ‘Would you like a cup of coffee?’ A:‘Would you like a cup of coffee?’(=‘Have some coffe, please.’) B: ‘Yes, please.’ As the hostess, A indirectly invites B, her honored guest, to have a cup of coffee. This is A DIRECTIVE. 8. ‘I was so sorry to hear about your loss.’ A: ‘I was so sorry to hear about your loss.’ B: ‘Thank you for your great sympathy.’ A directly shows his/her willingness to share B’s suffering. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 9. ‘I’m dead tired now!’ Wife: ‘Dinner is almost ready. Can you set the table, dear?’ Husband [complaining about his tiredness]: ‘I’m dead tired now!’ The husband indirectly refuses to set the table for dinner. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 10. ‘I’m awfully sorry I wasn’t at the meeting this morning.’ A: ‘I’m awfully sorry I wasn’t at the meeting this morning.’ B: ‘You don’t need to apologize.’ A directly apologizes to B. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 11. ‘If you don’t try your best, you’ll fail in the exam.’ Professor: ‘If you don’t try your best, you’ll fail in the exam.’ (= ‘I’ll refuse to pass those who have not tried their best to take the course.’) Student 1: ‘Oh, my goodness!’ Student 2: ‘There is no doubt about that.’ Student 3: ‘I’m sure to take the make-up exam.’ The professor indirectly commits to fail those who have not tried their best to take the course. This is A COMMISSIVE.
42. 42. 218 12. ‘Why don’t you take a seat?’ A: ‘Can I talk to you for a while?’ B: ‘Certainly. ‘Why don’t you take a seat?’ (= ‘Sit down, please.’) B indirectly requests A to sit down. This is A DIRECTIVE. 13. ‘How dare you speak to her like that?’ Tom: ‘I told Jane that she was a talented liar.’ Jack: ‘How dare you speak to her like that?’ Jack is annoyed by Tom’s rudeness. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 14. ‘You look lovely today in your new dress.’ Manager: ‘You look lovely today in your new dress.’ Secretary: ‘Thanks/Thank you for your nice compliment.’ The manager directly compliments his secretary on her new dress. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 15. ‘I’d sell it if I were you.’ Gordon’s friend: ‘My car breaks down again.’ Gordon: ‘I’d sell it if I were you.’ (= ‘You should sell it.’) Gordon indirectly advises his friend to get rid of the frustrating car. This is A DIRECTIVE. 16. ‘I’ll be right back.’ Desk clerk: ‘I beg your pardon. I’ll be right back.’ Client: ‘No problem.’ The desk clerk directly promises to return in a few minutes. This is A COMMISSIVE. 17. ‘I beg you to reconsider your decision.’ Mrs. Brown: ‘I beg you to reconsider your decision.’ (= ‘Please think it over.’) Mr. Brown: ‘I have nothing to reconsider.’ Mrs. Brown earnestly asks her husband to give his decision a second thought. This is A DIRECTIVE. 18. ‘Do you think I’m an idiot?’ Paul: ‘Why don’t you marry her?’ Morris: ‘Do you think I’m an idiot?’
43. 43. 219 (By making a Yes-No question the answer of which must be no,) Morris indirectly rejects Paul’s suggestion. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 19. ‘May I hand in my final paper the day after tomorrow?’ Student: ‘May I hand in my final paper the day after tomorrow?’ Professor: ‘I’m afraid that I cannot give you any more time.’ The student directly asks for permission to hand in his/her final paper in two days. This is A DIRECTIVE. 20. ‘We select Alfred as the head of our group.’ Teacher: ‘Who is the head of Group 2?’ Doris: ‘We select Alfred as the head of our group.’ (On behalf of all the members of Group 2, who have just selected Alfred to be their head,) Doris is directly announcing her group’s selection. This is A DECLARATIVE. 21. ‘I’ll pay you back in two days.’ Carol: ‘I’ll pay you back in two days.’ Laura: ‘Can I trust your words?’ Carol directly promises to pay Laura back in two days. This is A COMMISSIVE. 22. ‘We are going to turn you in.’ A drunken relative: ‘Just bring me another bottle of red wine.’ The host: ‘If you keep on misbehaving, we are going to turn you in.’ On behalf of his wife, the speaker, who is the host of a party, threatens to let the police arrest the hearer, who is a drunken irritating relative. This is A COMMISSIVE. 23. ‘I would appreciate it if you went away.’ A: ‘I can’t live without your love.’ B: ‘I would appreciate it if you went away.’ (= ‘Go away.’) B indirectly orders A to go away. This is A DIRECTIVE. 24. ‘Can I help you?’ Shop assistant: ‘Can I help you?’ Customer: ‘Yes, I’m looking for some cheap shoes.’
44. 44. 220 The shop assistant directly asks the customer for some information. This is A ROGATIVE. The shop assistant indirectly offers the customer some help. This is A COMMISSIVE. 25. ‘I’ve stopped smoking.’ A: ‘Have a cigarette!’ B: ‘No, thanks. I’ve stopped smoking.’ B directly explains why he/she refuses A’s invitation. This is A REPRESENTATIVE. 26. ‘Goodness!’ John’s mother [talking on the phone]: ‘John had thirteen friends to tea on his birthday yesterday.’ John’s grandmother: ‘Goodness! I didn’t think a three-year-old like him had as many as thirteen friends.’ John’s grandmother directly cries out in surprise. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 27. ‘Drink a cup of coffee.’ A: ‘I can’t keep awake.’ B: ‘Drink a cup of coffee.’ B directly advises A to drink a cup of coffee. This is A DIRECTIVE. 28. ‘That doesn’t sound very serious.’ A: ‘I’ve got a sore throat.’ B: ‘That doesn’t sound very serious.’ B directly shows no sympathy towards A’s sore throat. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 29. ‘I’ve got to go now.’ A: ‘I’ve got to go now.’ B: ‘OK. See you later.’ A: ‘See you.’ A indirectly pre-closes the conversation between him/her and B. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 30. ‘Someone said you got fired.’
45. 45. 221 Mother: ‘Someone said you got fired.’ (= ‘Did you get fired?’) Daughter: ‘Yes, but I’ve already applied for another job.’ The mother indirectly asks her daughter for some information. This is A ROGATIVE. Exercise 41: For each of the following utterances, provide two situations so that one utterance performs two different acts. Interpret the utterances and identify the acts performed in the light of the situations you provide. 1. ‘Do you feel better today?’ SITUATION 1: Doctor: ‘Do you feel better today?’ Patient: ‘Yes, I do.’ The doctor directly asks her patient for some information. This is A ROGATIVE. SITUATION 2: Mother [in hospital for a while]: ‘I’m glad that you’re here with me again.’ Son [in a very concerned manner]: ‘Do you feel better today?’ The son indirectly expresses his worry about his mother’s health. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 2. ‘I beg your pardon.’ SITUATION 1: A: ‘Take this paper to the lady over there and ask for her signature.’ B: ‘I beg your pardon (= Repeat, please). I didn’t hear what you said.’ B indirectly requests A to repeat what he/she has just said. This is A DIRECTIVE. SITUATION 2: A: ‘You’ve taken my seat.’ B: ‘Oh, I beg your pardon.’ (= ‘I’m terribly sorry.’) B directly apologizes to A for taking A’s seat by mistake. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 3. ‘It’s going to rain.’ SITUATION 1: Wife: ‘It’s going to rain.’ (= ‘Remember to bring the new raincoat with you.’)
46. 46. 222 Husband: ‘I’ll bring the new raincoat with me.’ (= ‘I will.’) The wife indirectly reminds her husband to bring the new raincoat with him. This is A DIRECTIVE. SITUATION 2: Wife: ‘The weatherman says that it’s going to rain.’ Husband: ‘I heard that on the radio this morning, too.’ The wife directly reports what the weatherman has said. This is A REPRESENTATIVE. 4. ‘It’s snowing.’ SITUATION 1: Mary: ‘What’s the weather like in Boston?’ Steve: ‘It’s snowing.’ Steve directly gives a piece of information (to answer Mary’s question). This is A REPRESENTATIVE. SITUATION 2: Hazel: ‘Could you go and post this letter?’ Glen: ‘It’s snowing.’ (= ‘I’m afraid that I have to say ‘no’ to your request.’) (By stating the fact that it’s snowing,) Glen indirectly refuses to go and post the letter for Hazel. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. 5. ‘I said I didn’t.’ SITUATION 1: A: ‘Did you go to the theater last night?’ B: ‘I didn’t.’ A: ‘Tell me the truth. Did you go to the theater last night?’ B: ‘I said I didn’t.’ B is annoyed by A’s repetition of the same question. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. SITUATION 2: Jane: ‘Mum asked me if I knew your new address.’ Jane’s sister: ‘And what did you say?’ Jane: ‘I said I didn’t.’ Jane directly gives a piece of information (to answer her sister’s question).
47. 47. 223 This is A REPRESENTATIVE. 6. ‘There’s a bend ahead.’ SITUATION 1: A: ‘Is there any bend near here?’ B: ‘There’s a bend ahead.’ B directly informs A of the fact that there is a bend ahead of them. This is A REPRESENTATIVE. SITUATION 2: A: ‘Be careful. There’s a bend ahead.’ (= ‘Drive carefully and slow down a bit.’) B: ‘Thanks for your timely warning.’ A indirectly asks B to drive carefully and slow down a bit (because there’s a bend ahead). This is A DIRECTIVE. 7. ‘Keep off the grass.’ SITUATION 1: Son: ‘What does the sign say, Mum.’ Mother: ‘Keep off the grass.’ The mother directly gives a piece of information (to answer her son’s question). This is A REPRESENTATIVE. SITUATION 2: A: ‘How smooth the lawn is!’ B: ‘Keep off the grass.’ B directly orders A not to walk on the lawn. This is A DIRECTIVE. 8. ‘I’m very upset that so many of you are talking.’ SITUATION 1: Joe: ‘It’s my book.’ Jenny: ‘Your book is over there. This one’s mine.’ Jack: ‘Your book is there and over there is Joe’s. This one’s mine.’ Mother: ‘I’m very upset that so many of you are talking.’ The mother of three young children directly shows that she is extremely annoyed by her children’s talkativeness. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. SITUATION 2:
48. 48. 224 Teacher: ‘I’m very upset that so many of you are talking.’ Class monitor: ‘Be quiet, please.’ The teacher of a big class indirectly orders her pupils to stop talking (and the monitor just paraphrases what the teacher has really said). This is A DIRECTIVE. 9. ‘Be aware of dogs.’ SITUATION 1: [There are some dogs in the street. A sees the dogs approaching B.] A: ‘Be aware of dogs.’ B: ‘Thanks for your timely warning.’ A directly warns B of the dogs’ approaching. This is A DIRECTIVE. SITUATION 2: Daughter: ‘What does the sign mean, Mum?’ Mother: ‘Be aware of dogs.’ The mother directly provides her daughter with a piece of information. This is A REPRESENTATIVE. 10. ‘What else do you want?’ SITUATION 1: [Mary goes shopping. She’s already chosen a fashionable blouse and a well-formed skirt.] Shop assistant: ‘What else do you want?’ Mary: ‘That’s all. Thanks.’ The shop assistant directly asks Mary for some information. This is A ROGATIVE. SITUATION 2: A misbehaved seven-year-old boy keeps asking his mother to do this or that for him while she is busy with a lot of housework. Being annoyed, the mother shouts: ‘What else do you want?’ The mother indirectly expresses her annoyance. This is AN EXPRESSIVE. Exercise 42: Use the locution, illocution, and perlocution analysis to analyse the underlined utterance in each of the following dialogues.
49. 49. 225 (1) Mrs Smith’s neighbour: ‘I was so sorry to hear about your loss.’ Mrs Smith: ‘Thank you. It was a great shock, but I must get used to it.’ Locution: Mrs Smith’s neighbour uttered the words ‘I was so sorry to hear about your loss’, which can be semantically paraphrased as ‘You have my great sympathy’, with I referring to the neighbour. Illocution: The neighbour performed the act of condoling. Perlocution: Mrs Smith, who is a recently bereaved widow and who expects the neighbour’s utterance, gives a prepared reply: ‘Thank you. It was a great shock, but I must get used to it.’ (2) A: ‘Would you like a cup of coffee?’ B: ‘Yes, please.’ Locution: A uttered the words ‘Would you like a cup of coffee’, which can be semantically paraphrased as ‘Have a cup of coffee, please’, with you referring to B. Illocution: A performed the act of offering. Perlocution: The utterance may cause B, who is the hearer, to think the speaker, who is A, is more generous than he/she thought. (3) Son: ‘Can I go out for a while, Mum?’ Mother: ‘You can play outside for half an hour.’ Locution: The mother uttered the words ‘You can play outside for half an hour’, which can be semantically paraphrased as ‘You have my permission to go out for a while’, with you referring to the son. Illocution: The mother performed the act of giving permission. Perlocution: The utterance may cause the son to race out of the room, picking up his football on the way. Exercise 43: Are the following utterances performative (P) or constative (C)? 1. P; 2. C; 3. P; 4. C; 5. P; 6. C; 7. P; 8. C; 9. P; 10. P
50. 50. 226 Exercise 44: Also note that the most reliable test to determine whether an utterance is performative is to insert the word hereby and see if the modified utterance is acceptable. Can hereby be acceptably inserted in the following utterances? 1.Yes; 2. No; 3. No; 4. Yes; 5. Yes; 6. No; 7. Yes; 8. No; 9. Yes; 10. No Exercise 45: Fill in each of the blanks with an appropriate word. The first one is done as an example. 1. Semantics 11. Anomaly 2. Homography 12. features 3. contradiction 13. Homonymy 4. Hyponymy 14. lexical 5. sentence 15. Partial 6. Antonymy 16. structurally 7. proposition 17. Polysemy 8. Homophony 18. analytic 9. utterance 19. pragmatic 10. reference 20. Synonymy 21 permorfative
51. 51. 227 LIST OF ENGLISH-VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENT LINGUISTIC TERMS (in alphabetical order) abbreviation daïng ruùt goïn, daïng tænh löôïc abstract (coù tính) tröøu töôïng additional phuï, boå sung adjectival phuï ngöõ laø tính töø adjunct traïng ngöõ cuûa vò töø adverb traïng töø adverbial (1) (coù tính) traïng ngöõ adverbial (2) phuï ngöõ laø traïng töø article quaùn töø ambiguity tính mô hoà veà nghóa, tính löôõng nghóa ambiguous (coù tính) mô hoà veà nghóa, löôõng nghóa analytic sentence caâu phaân tích approbation maxim phöông chaâm taùn ñoàng assert tuyeân boá assertion (söï/lôøi) tuyeân boá assume nhaän ñònh assumption (söï/lôøi) nhaän ñònh asymmetric khoâng ñoái xöùng asymmetrically (moät caùch) khoâng ñoái xöùng anomaly tính baát thöôøng anomalous (coù tính) baát thöôøng antonym töø traùi nghóa antonymy quan heä/tính traùi nghóa
52. 52. 228 binary antonym töø traùi nghóa löôõng phaân binary antonymy quan heä/tính traùi nghóa löôõng phaân binary oppositions theá ñoái laäp coù-khoâng class lôùp, chuûng loaïi class membership tö caùch laø thaønh vieân cuûa moät lôùp co-reference (quan heä) ñoàng sôû chæ co-operative tính hôïp taùc co-operative (coù tính) hôïp taùc co-operative principle nguyeân taéc hôïp taùc collocation (1) quan heä keát hôïp collocation (2) keát ngoân, ngöõ coá ñònh commonality tính chaát chung commissive haønh ñoäng cam keát compatibility tính töông hôïp compatible (coù tính) töông hôïp componential analysis söï phaân tích nghóa toá concrete (coù tính) cuï theå connotation nghóa lieân töôûng connotative meaning nghóa lieân töôûng conscious metaphor aån duï coù yù thöùc constant reference sôû chæ coá ñònh constative (1) (coù tính) nhaän ñònh constative (2) caâu nhaän ñònh content word thực từ context ngoân caûnh context-bound bò ngoân caûnh raøng buoäc context-dependent bò ngoân caûnh raøng buoäc context-free khoâng bò ngoân caûnh raøng buoäc continuous scale of values thang giaù trò lieân tuïc
53. 53. 229 contradiction söï/caâu nghòch lyù contradictory sentence caâu nghòch lyù conventional implicature haøm ngoân öôùc ñònh conversational implicature haøm ngoân hoäi thoaïi conversational maxim phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi converse töø traùi nghóa nghòch ñaûo core meaning nghóa coát loõi countable coù theå ñeám ñöôïc counter-factual presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh phaûn hàm thực dead metaphor aån duï cheát declarative haønh ñoäng tuyeân boá declarative sentence caâu traàn thuaät definite xaùc ñònh definite article quaùn töø xaùc ñònh deixis tröïc chæ deictic (coù tính) tröïc chæ deictic expression töø tröïc chæ demonstrative adjective tính töø chæ xuaát deny phuû nhaän, choái boû đ deniable coù theå bò phuû nhaän, coù theå phuû nhaän ñược denotation nghóa sôû thò denotative meaning nghóa sôû thò dictionary entry haïng muïc (lieät keâ) trong töø ñieån direct (coù tính) tröïc tieáp direct speech act haønh ñoäng ngoân töø tröïc tieáp directness tính tröïc tieáp directive haønh ñoäng caàu khieán distinct (coù tính) khu bieät distinction söï khu bieät
54. 54. 230 entail keùo theo entailment quan heä/caâu keùo theo entity thöïc theå explicit (coù tính) hieån ngoân explicit performative caâu haønh ngoân hieån ngoân explicitly (moät caùch) hieån ngoân explicitness tính hieån ngoân etymology töø nguyeân (hoïc) exclusive loaïi tröø exclusive ‘we’ chuùng toâi expressive haønh ñoäng bieåu caûm expression of personification lôøi noùi coù nhaân caùch hoaù existential presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh tồn tại extension söï/quaù trình môû roäng euphemism (1) pheùp noùi kheùo euphemism (2) lôøi noùi kheùo, uyeån ngöõ factual presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh hàm thực felicity condition ñieàu kieän höõu hieäu figurative language ngoân ngöõ töôïng/gôïi hình figurative meaning nghóa boùng figure of speech hình thaùi tu töø fixed expression caùch bieåu ñaït coá ñònh, ngöõ coá ñònh flout(conversationalmaxim) viphaïm,baátchaáp (phöôngchaâmhoäithoaïi) flouting (of conversational maxim) söï vi phaïm, vieäc baát chaáp (phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi) form hình thaùi, hình thöùc, daïng fossilized metaphor aån duï hoùa thaïch function word hư từ, từ chức năng generic (coù tính) toång loaïi generic lexical item töø ngöõ coù nghóa toång loaïi
55. 55. 231 gradable antonym töø traùi nghóa coù thang ñoä gradable antonymy quan heä/tính traùi nghóa coù thang ñoä grammar ngöõ phaùp grammatical (coù tính) ngöõ phaùp grammatical rule quy taéc ngöõ phaùp grammatical structure caáu truùc ngöõ phaùp grammatically (veà maët) ngöõ phaùp grammatically correct ñuùng ngöõ phaùp hierarchy (heä) toân ty hierarchical (coù tính) toân ty hierarchical classification söï phaân loaïi toân ty homograph töø ñoàng töï homographic (coù tính) ñoàng töï homography quan heä/tính ñoàng töï homonym töø ñoàng aâm ñoàng töï homonymic (coù tính) ñoàng aâm ñoàng töï homonymy quan heä/tính ñoàng aâm ñoàng töï homophone töø ñoàng aâm dò töï homophonic (coù tính) ñoàng aâm dò töï homophony quan heä/tính ñoàng aâm dò töï hyperbole (1) pheùp noùi khoa tröông, ngoa duï hyperbole (2) lôøi noùi khoa tröông, ngoa duï hyper(o)nym thöôïng danh hyponym haï danh hyponymic (coù tính) bao nghóa hyponymic relation(ship) quan heä bao nghóa hyponymy quan heä/tính bao nghóa ideal (coù tính) lyù töôûng idiom thaønh ngöõ
56. 56. 232 illocution/illocutionary act haønh ñoäng taïi ngoân illocutionary force/ illocutionary meaning löïc taïi ngoân implicate coù haøm yù laø implicature haøm ngoân implicit (coù tính) haøm aån implicit performative caâu haønh ngoân haøm aån implicitness tính haøm aån imply aùm chæ implied (coù tính) haøm aån inclusion quan heä bao nghóa inclusive ‘we’ chuùng ta incompatibility tính khoâng töông hôïp incompatible khoâng (coù tính) töông hôïp incomplete version phieân baûn khoâng hoaøn chænh indefinite baát ñònh indefinite article quaùn töø baát ñònh indexical töø tröïc chæ indirect (coù tính) giaùn tieáp indirect speech act haønh ñoäng ngoân töø giaùn tieáp indirectness tính giaùn tieáp infer suy dieãn inference söï/ñieàu suy dieãn informative coù giaù trò thoâng tin interrogation söï/quaù trình nghi vaán hoaù inscription vaên töï irony pheùp noùi mæa ironical (coù tính) mæa mai ironical understatement lôøi noùi giaûm ñeå mæa mai lexical (thuoäc/coù tính) töø vöïng
57. 57. 233 lexical ambiguity tính löôõng nghóa töø vöïng lexically ambiguous (coù tính) löôõng nghóa töø vöïng lexical field tröôøng từ vựng lexical gap oâ troáng töø vöïng lexical item (yeáu toá) töø vöïng lexical meaning nghóa töø vöïng lexical presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh từ vựng lexical set tröôøng từ vựng lexicon (voán) töø vöïng linguistic (thuoäc) ngoân ngöõ linguistic expression caùch bieåu ñaït baèng ngoân töø linguistics ngoân ngöõ hoïc literal (thuoäc) nghóa ñen literal meaning nghóa ñen, nghóa nguyeân vaên literally (xeùt veà) nghóa ñen litotes pheùp noùi giaûm, khieâm duï live metaphor aån duï soáng locution/locutionary act haønh ñoäng taïo ngoân locutionary meaning nghóa meänh ñeà marked (coù tính) höõu tröng, coù ñaùnh daáu markedness tính höõu tröng, tính chaát coù ñaùnh daáu maxim of Manner phöông chaâm veà phöông thöùc maxim of Relevance phöông chaâm veà tính quan yeáu maxim of Quality phöông chaâm veà chaát maxim of Quantity phöông chaâm veà löôïng meaning nghóa meiosis pheùp noùi giaûm, khieâm duï metaphor (1) pheùp aån duï metaphor (2) aån duï
58. 58. 234 metaphoric (coù tính) aån duï metaphoric meaning nghóa aån duï metonymy (1) pheùp hoaùn duï metonymy (2) hoaùn duï morphology hình thaùi hoïc multiple ña, nhieàu multiple senses nhieàu nghóa mutual laãn nhau mutual entailment quan heä/caâu keùo theo laãn nhau mutually laãn nhau mutually exclusive loaïi tröø laãn nhau negation söï/quaù trình phuû ñònh negative connotation nghóa lieân töôûng tieâu cöïc neutral connotation nghóa lieân töôûng trung hoøa non-factual presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh hàm hư non-homographic khoâng (coù tính) ñoàng töï non-sentence (caáu truùc) khoâng phaûi caâu non-superficial saâu, saâu hôn nonsense caùi voâ nghóa notion khaùi nieäm observation (of conversational maxim) vieäc tuaân thuû (phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi) observe (conversational maxim) tuaân thuû (phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi) one-way entailment quan heä/caâu keùo theo moät chieàu onomatopoeia pheùp duøng töø töôïng thanh onamatopoeic word töø töôïng thanh opposite (1) ñoái laäp, traùi ngöôïc opposite (2) caùi ñoái laäp optional tuøy choïn
59. 59. 235 overstatement (1) pheùp noùi khoa tröông, ngoa duï overstatement (2) lôøi noùi khoa tröông, ngoa duï paraphrase (1) phoûng nghóa paraphrase (2) quan heä/caâu phoûng nghóa partial synonym töø ñoàng nghóa boä phaän partial synonymy quan heä/tính ñoàng nghóa boä phaän particular (coù tính) caù bieät performative (1) (coù tính) haønh ngoân performative (2) caâu haønh ngoân performative verb vò töø haønh ngoân perlocution/ perlocutionary act haønh ñoäng xuyeân ngoân personal deixis tröïc chæ ngöôøi personification pheùp nhaân caùch hoùa phonology aâm vò hoïc, ngöõ aâm hoïc politeness tính lòch söï polysemy quan heä/tính ña nghóa polysemic (coù tính) ña nghóa polysemous (coù tính) ña nghóa polysemous word töø ña nghóa positive connotation nghóa lieân töôûng tích cöïc possessive (coù tính) sôû höõu post-nominal (ñöùng/theo) sau danh töø pragmatic (coù tính) ngữ duïng pragmatic meaning nghóa ngöõ duïng pragmatically (veà maët) ngöõ duïng pragmatically anomalous baát thöôøng veà ngöõ duïng pragmatics ngữ duïng học presuppose tieàn giaû ñònh presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh
60. 60. 236 primary meaning nghóa nguyeân caáp primitive semantic feature neùt nghóa goác principle of politeness nguyeân taéc lòch söï pronunciation caùch phaùt aâm, daïng aâm thanh proposition meänh ñeà propositional meaning nghóa meänh ñeà redundancy rule pheùp thöøa referent vaät sôû chæ reference sôû chæ referential (thuoäc) sôû chæ referential meaning nghóa sôû chæ regional accent gioïng ñòa phöông relation (moái) quan heä relational antonym töø traùi nghóa nghòch ñaûo relational antonymy quan heä/tính traùi nghóa nghòch ñaûo relationship (moái) quan heä relevance tính quan yeáu relevant (coù tính) quan yeáu representative haønh ñoäng bieåu hieän rogative haønh ñoäng caàu khieán ñeå xin thoâng tin secondary meaning nghóa thứ caáp semantic (coù tính) ngữ nghĩa semantic component neùt nghóa semantic feature neùt nghóa semantic field tröôøng từ vựng semantic meaning nghóa ngöõ nghóa semantic property neùt nghóa semantic rule quy taéc ngöõ nghóa semantically (veà maët) ngữ nghĩa
61. 61. 237 semantically anomalous baát thöôøng veà ngöõ nghóa semantically compatible töông hôïp veà ngöõ nghóa semantically incompatible khoâng töông hôïp veà ngöõ nghóa semantics ngữ nghĩa học semi-onomatopoeia pheùp duøng töø baùn töôïng thanh semi-onamatopoeic word töø baùn töôïng thanh sense nghóa sense relation quan heä veà nghóa sentence caâu sentence meaning nghóa cuûa caâu sentence type loaïi caâu simile (1) pheùp tyû duï simile (2) tyû duï situation tình huoáng, tình theá sound form hình thöùc/daïng aâm thanh spatial deixis tröïc chæ khoâng gian specific (coù tính) loaïi bieät, cuï theå specific lexical item töø ngöõ coù nghóa loaïi bieät, cuï theå specifically (moät caùch) cuï theå speech lôøi noùi, ngoân töø, dieãn ngoân speech act haønh ñoäng ngoân töø speech-act category tieåu loaïi haønh ñoäng ngoân töø spelling caùch ñaùnh vaàn, daïng chöõ vieát state khaúng ñònh statement lôøi/caâu khaúng ñònh state of affairs söï tình, söï theå structure caáu truùc structural (coù tính) caáu truùc structural ambiguity tính löôõng nghóa caáu truùc
62. 62. 238 structural presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh cấu trúc structurally (veà maët) cấu trúc structurally ambiguous (coù tính) löôõng nghóa caáu truùc subordinate haï danh superordinate thöôïng danh symmetric ñoái xöùng symmetrically (moät caùch) ñoái xöùng symmetry söï ñoái xöùng synecdoche (1) pheùp caûi dung synecdoche (2) lôøi noùi coù pheùp caûi dung synonym töø ñoàng nghóa synonymic (coù tính) ñoàng nghóa synonymous (coù tính) ñoàng nghóa synonymy quan heä/tính ñoàng nghóa synthetic sentence caâu toång hôïp syntax cuù phaùp (hoïc) syntactic (coù tính) cuù phaùp syntactically (veà maët) cuù phaùp syntactically perfect hoaøn haûo veà cuù phaùp taboo word töø kieâng kî tact maxim phöông chaâm xöû trí taken literally ñöôïc hieåu theo nghóa ñen temporal deixis tröïc chæ thôøi gian text(ual) grammar ngöõ phaùp vaên baûn theory lyù thuyeát theorical (coù tính) lyù thuyeát true synonym töø ñoàng nghóa toaøn phaàn true synonymy quan heä/tính ñoàng nghóa toaøn phaàn term töø, thuaät ngöõ
63. 63. 239 terminological (coù tính) thuaät ngöõ terminological relationship quan heä giöõa caùc thuaät ngöõ terminology thuaät ngöõ truth value giaù trò chaân nguïy, giaù trò chaân lyù two-way entailment quan heä/caâu keùo theo hai chieàu unconcious metaphor aån duï voâ thöùc uncountable khoâng theå ñeám ñöôïc understatement (1) pheùp noùi giaûm, khieâm duï understatement (2) lôøi noùi giaûm, khieâm duï unmarked (coù tính) voâ tröng, khoâng ñaùnh daáu unmarkedness tính voâ tröng, tính chaát khoâng ñaùnh daáu unverbalized khoâng ñöôïc noùi ra, haøm aån utter phaùt ngoân, noùi ra utterance phaùt ngoân utterance meaning nghóa cuûa phaùt ngoân variable reference sôû chæ khoâng coá ñònh verbalized ñöôïc noùi ra (thaønh lôøi), hieån ngoân violate (conversational maxim) vi phaïm, baát chaáp (phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi) violation (of conversational maxim) söï vi phaïm, vieäc baát chaáp (phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi) well-formed sentence caâu chænh, caâu ñuùng ngöõ phaùp word từ, tiếng word meaning nghóa cuûa töø written form hình thöùc/daïng chöõ vieát
64. 64. 240 LIST OF ENGLISH-VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENT LINGUISTIC TERMS (in related groups of notions as well as in alphabetical order) abbreviation daïng ruùt goïn, daïng tænh löôïc abstract (coù tính) tröøu töôïng additional phuï, boå sung adjectival phuï ngöõ laø tính töø adjunct traïng ngöõ cuûa vò töø adverb traïng töø adverbial (1) (coù tính) traïng ngöõ adverbial (2) phuï ngöõ laø traïng töø ambiguity tính mô hoà veà nghóa, tính löôõng nghóa lexical ambiguity tính löôõng nghóa töø vöïng structural ambiguity tính löôõng nghóa caáu truùc ambiguous mô hoà veà nghóa, löôõng nghóa lexically ambiguous löôõng nghóa töø vöïng structurally ambiguous löôõng nghóa caáu truùc article quaùn töø definite article quaùn töø xaùc ñònh indefinite article quaùn töø baát ñònh assert tuyeân boá assertion (söï/lôøi) tuyeân boá assume nhaän ñònh assumption (vieäc/lôøi) nhaän ñònh asymmetric khoâng ñoái xöùng asymmetrically (moät caùch) khoâng ñoái xöùng anomaly tính baát thöôøng anomalous (coù tính) baát thöôøng
65. 65. 241 semantically anomalous baát thöôøng veà ngöõ nghóa pragmatically anomalous baát thöôøng veà ngöõ duïng antonym töø traùi nghóa binary antonym töø traùi nghóa löôõng phaân gradable antonym töø traùi nghóa coù thang ñoä relational antonym/ converse töø traùi nghóa nghòch ñaûo antonymy quan heä/tính traùi nghóa binary antonymy quan heä/tính traùi nghóa löôõng phaân gradable antonymy quan heä/tính traùi nghóa coù thang ñoä relational antonymy quan heä/tính traùi nghóa nghòch ñaûo binary oppositions theá ñoái laäp coù-khoâng class lôùp, chuûng loaïi class membership tö caùch laø thaønh vieân cuûa moät lôùp collocation (1) quan heä keát hôïp collocation (2) keát ngoân, ngöõ coá ñònh commonality tính chaát chung compatibility tính töông hôïp compatible (coù tính) töông hôïp semantically compatible töông hôïp veà ngöõ nghóa componential analysis söï phaân tích nghóa toá concrete (coù tính) cuï theå co-operative principle nguyeân taéc hôïp taùc constative (1) (coù tính) nhaän ñònh constative (2) caâu nhaän ñònh context ngoân caûnh context-bound/ context-dependent bò ngoân caûnh raøng buoäc context-free khoâng bò ngoân caûnh raøng buoäc contextual (thuoäc/coù tính) ngoân caûnh
66. 66. 242 continuous scale of values thang giaù trò lieân tuïc conversational maxim phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi maxim of Manner phöông chaâm veà phöông thöùc maxim of Relevance phöông chaâm veà tính quan yeáu maxim of Quality phöông chaâm veà chaát maxim of Quantity phöông chaâm veà löôïng approbation maxim phöông chaâm taùn ñoàng tact maxim phöông chaâm xöû trí countable coù theå ñeám ñöôïc declarative sentence caâu traàn thuaät definite xaùc ñònh deixis tröïc chæ personal deixis tröïc chæ ngöôøi spatial deixis tröïc chæ khoâng gian temporal deixis tröïc chæ thôøi gian deictic (coù tính) tröïc chæ deictic expression/indexical töø tröïc chæ demonstrative adjective tính töø chæ xuaát deny phuû nhaän, choái boû deniable coù theå bò phuû nhaän, coù theåphuû nhaän được dictionary entry haïng muïc (lieät keâ) trong töø ñieån direct (coù tính) tröïc tieáp directness tính tröïc tieáp distinct khu bieät distinction söï khu bieät entail keùo theo entailment quan heä/caâu keùo theo one-way entailment quan heä/caâu keùo theo moät chieàu two-way entailment quan heä/caâu keùo theo hai chieàu
67. 67. 243 mutual entailment quan heä/caâu keùo theo laãn nhau entity thöïc theå etymology töø nguyeân (hoïc) exclusive loaïi tröø exclusive ‘we’ chuùng toâi explicit/verbalized (coù tính) hieån ngoân explicitly (moät caùch) hieån ngoân explicitness tính hieån ngoân extension söï/quaù trình môû roäng felicity condition ñieàu kieän höõu hieäu figurative language ngoân ngöõ töôïng/gôïi hình simile pheùp tyû duï metaphor pheùp aån duï personification pheùp nhaân caùch hoùa metonymy pheùp hoaùn duï synecdoche pheùp caûi dung hyperbole/overstatement pheùp noùi khoa tröông, ngoa duï litotes/meiosis/ understatement pheùp noùi giaûm, khieâm duï irony pheùp noùi mæa euphemism pheùp noùi kheùo onomatopoeia pheùp duøng töø töôïng thanh semi-onomatopoeia pheùp duøng töø baùn töôïng thanh figure of speech hình thaùi tu töø simile tyû duï metaphor aån duï dead metaphor aån duï cheát fossilized metaphor aån duï hoùa thaïch unconcious metaphor aån duï voâ thöùc idiom thaønh ngöõ
68. 68. 244 fixed expression caùch bieåu ñaït coá ñònh live metaphor aån duï soáng conscious metaphor aån duï coù yù thöùc expressionofpersonification lôøi noùi coù nhaân caùch hoaù metonymy hoaùn duï synecdoche lôøi noùi coù pheùp caûi dung overstatement/hyperbole lôøi noùi khoa tröông, ngoa duï understatement lôøi noùi giaûm, khieâm duï ironical understatement lôøi noùi giaûm ñeå mỉa mai taboo word töø kieâng kî euphemism lôøi noùi kheùo, uyeån ngöõ onamatopoeic word töø töôïng thanh semi-onamatopoeic word töø baùn töôïng thanh flout/violate/breach/infrindge (conversationalmaxim) vi phaïm, baát chaáp (phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi) flouting/violation (of conversational maxim) söï vi phaïm, vieäc baát chaáp (phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi) form hình thaùi, hình thöùc, daïng sound form/pronunciation hình thöùc/daïng aâm thanh written form/spelling hình thöùc/daïng chöõ vieát grammar ngöõ phaùp grammatical (coù tính) ngöõ phaùp grammatical rule quy taéc ngöõ phaùp grammatical structure caáu truùc ngöõ phaùp grammatically (veà maët) ngöõ phaùp grammatically correct ñuùng ngöõ phaùp hierarchy (heä) toân ty hierarchical (coù tính) toân ty hierarchical classification söï phaân loaïi toân ty hyponymy quan heä/tính bao nghóa
69. 69. 245 hyponymic (coù tính) bao nghóa hyponymic relation(ship) quan heä bao nghóa hyponym/subordinate haï danh immediate hyponym haï danh tröïc tieáp superordinate/hyper(o)nym thöôïng danh homography quan heä/tính ñoàng töï homographic (coù tính) ñoàng töï non-homographic khoâng (coù tính) ñoàng töï homograph töø ñoàng töï homophony quan heä/tính ñoàng aâm dò töï homophonic (coù tính) ñoàng aâm dò töï homophone töø ñoàng aâm dò töï homonymy quan heä/tính ñoàng aâm ñoàng töï homonymic (coù tính) ñoàng aâm ñoàng töï homonym töø ñoàng aâm ñoàng töï ideal (coù tính) lyù töôûng implicate coù haøm yù laø implicature haøm ngoân conversational implicature haøm ngoân hoäi thoaïi conventional implicature haøm ngoân öôùc ñònh implicit/implied/unverbalized (coù tính) haøm aån implicitness tính haøm aån imply aùm chæ inclusion quan heä bao nghóa inclusive ‘we’ chuùng ta incompatibility tính khoâng töông hôïp incompatible khoâng töông hôïp semantically incompatible khoâng töông hôïp veà ngöõ nghóa incomplete version phieân baûn khoâng hoaøn chænh
70. 70. 246 indefinite baát ñònh indexical/deictic expression töø tröïc chæ indirect (coù tính) giaùn tieáp indirectness tính giaùn tieáp infer suy dieãn inference söï/ñieàu suy dieãn informative coù giaù trò thoâng tin inscription vaên töï interrogation söï/quaù trình nghi vaán hoaù lexical (thuoäc/coù tính) töø vöïng lexical gap oâ troáng töø vöïng lexical item (yeáu toá) töø vöïng generic lexical item töø ngöõ coù nghóa toång loaïi specific lexical item töø ngöõ coù nghóa loaïi bieät lexical meaning nghóa töø vöïng lexicon (voán) töø vöïng linguistics ngoân ngöõ hoïc linguistic (thuoäc) ngoân ngöõ linguistic expression caùch bieåu ñaït baèng ngoân töø literal (thuoäc) nghóa ñen literally (xeùt veà) nghóa ñen taken literally ñöôïc hieåu theo nghóa ñen markedness tính höõu tröng, tính chaát coù ñaùnh daáu marked (coù tính) höõu tröng, coù ñaùnh daáu meaning nghóa denotation/ denotative meaning nghóa sôû thò referential meaning nghóa sôû chæ connotation/ connotative meaning nghóa lieân töôûng
71. 71. 247 positive connotation nghóa lieân töôûng tích cöïc negative connotation nghóa lieân töôûng tieâu cöïc neutral connotation nghóa lieân töôûng trung hoøa primary meaning nghóa nguyeân caáp secondary meaning nghóa thöù caáp literal meaning nghóa ñen figurative meaning nghóa boùng core meaning nghóa coát loõi metaphoric meaning nghóa aån duï word meaning nghóa cuûa töø lexical meaning nghóa töø vöïng sentence meaning nghóa cuûa caâu utterance meaning nghóa cuûa phaùt ngoân semantic meaning nghóa ngöõ nghóa pragmatic meaning nghóa ngöõ duïng morphology hình thaùi hoïc multiple ña, nhieàu mutual laãn nhau mutually laãn nhau mutually exclusive loaïi tröø laãn nhau negation söï/quaù trình phuû ñònh non-superficial saâu, saâu hôn notion khaùi nieäm observation (of conversational implicature) söï/vieäc tuaân thuû (phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi) observe (conversational implicature) tuaân thuû (phöông chaâm hoäi thoaïi) opposite (1) ñoái laäp, traùi ngöôïc opposite (2) caùi ñoái laäp optional (coù tính) tuøy choïn
72. 72. 248 paraphrase (1) phoûng nghóa paraphrase (2) quan heä/caâu phoûng nghóa performative (1) (coù tính) haønh ngoân performative (2) caâu haønh ngoân explicit performative caâu haønh ngoân hieån ngoân implicit performative caâu haønh ngoân haøm aån performative verb vò töø haønh ngoân particular (coù tính) caù bieät phonology aâm vò hoïc, ngöõ aâm hoïc politeness tính lòch söï polysemy quan heä/tính ña nghóa polysemous/polysemic (coù tính) ña nghóa polysemous word töø ña nghóa possessive (coù tính) sôû höõu post-nominal (ñöùng/theo) sau danh töø pragmatics ngữ duïng học pragmatic (coù tính) ngữ duïng pragmatically (veà maët) ngữ duïng pragmatically anomalous baát thöôøng veà ngöõ duïng presuppose tieàn giaû ñònh presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh existential presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh tồn tại factual presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh hàm thực non-factual presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh hàm hư lexical presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh từ vựng structural presupposition tieàn giaû ñònh cấu trúc counter-factualpresupposition tieàn giaû ñònh phaûn hàm thực principle of politeness nguyeân taéc lòch söï proposition meänh ñeà
73. 73. 249 redundancy rule pheùp thöøa reference sôû chæ constant reference sôû chæ coá ñònh variable reference sôû chæ khoâng coá ñònh co-reference (quan heä) ñoàng sôû chæ referent vaät sôû chæ regional accent gioïng ñòa phöông relation/relationship (moái) quan heä relevance tính quan yeáu relevant (coù tính) quan yeáu semantics ngữ nghĩa học semantic (coù tính) ngữ nghĩa semanticfeature/component/property neùt nghóa primitive semantic feature neùt nghóa goác semantic field/lexical field/lexical set tröôøng từ vựng semantic rule quy taéc ngöõ nghóa semantically (veà maët) ngữ nghĩa semantically anomolous baát thöôøng veà ngöõ nghóa semantically compatible töông hôïp veà ngöõ nghóa semantically incompatible khoâng töông hôïp veà ngöõ nghóa sense nghóa multiple senses nhieàu nghóa sense relation quan heä veà nghóa nonsense caùi voâ nghóa sentence caâu sentence type loaïi caâu analytic sentence caâu phaân tích synthetic sentence caâu toång hôïp contradiction/ contradictory sentence caâu nghòch lyù

What is a semantic feature analysis?

What is semantic feature analysis teaching strategy?

What is the main focus of classification activities?

Which of the following strategies would be most effective in promoting second graders decoding of Multisyllable words?