Which of the following symptoms would the nurse expect to observe in a patient diagnosed with hypothyroidism?

Learning Outcome

1. List the causes of hypothyroidism

   Inhaltsverzeichnis Show

   • Learning Outcome
   • Introduction
   • Nursing Diagnosis
   • Risk Factors
   • Medical Management
   • Nursing Management
   • Coordination of Care
   • Health Teaching and Health Promotion
   • Review Questions
   • Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of hypothyroidism?
   • Which signs symptoms indicate the client with hypothyroidism is not taking enough thyroid hormone?
   • Which signs symptoms should make the nurse suspect the patient is experiencing a thyroid storm?
   • What signs symptoms would the nurse expect to see in a client who has been admitted to the unit with a diagnosis of hyperthyroidism?

2. Describe the clinical features of hypothyroidism

3. Summarize the treatment of hypothyroidism

4. Recall the nursing management plans for hypothyroidism

Introduction

The thyroid gland located in the anterior neck secretes thyroid hormones. It is essential for multiple metabolic functions spanning almost every organ system. Hypothyroidism results from low levels of thyroid hormone. It has varied etiology and manifestations. Clinicians treat hypothyroidism with levothyroxine. Untreated hypothyroidism increases morbidity and mortality. This article reviews etiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of hypothyroidism.

Nursing Diagnosis

• Activity intolerance

• Obesity

• Overweight

• Risk for constipation

• Deficient knowledge

• Imbalance in nutrition

• Fatigue

Causes

The most common etiology is iodine deficiency in iodine-deficient geographic areas worldwide. Autoimmune thyroid diseases are the leading cause of hypothyroidism in the United States and the iodine-sufficient regions. Etiology can be influenced locally by iodine fortification and emergence of new iodine-deficient areas.[1]

Other common causes of hypothyroidism are drugs such as amiodarone and lithium,[1] thyroid radioactive iodine therapy or thyroid surgery, radiotherapy to head or neck area, and central hypothyroidism from neoplastic, infiltrative, inflammatory, or iatrogenic disorders of the pituitary or hypothalamus.[2]

Risk Factors

The NHANESIII (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) study found the prevalence of overt hypothyroidism among US adults (12 years of age and older) to be 0.3% and subclinical hypothyroidism 4.3%. Female gender and increasing age were associated with higher thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and prevalence of antithyroid antibodies.[3]

Assessment

It is important to maintain a high index of suspicion for hypothyroidism since the signs and symptoms can be mild and nonspecific and different symptoms may be present in different patients.

Inquire about dry skin, voice changes, hair loss, constipation, fatigue, muscle cramps, cold intolerance, sleep disturbances, menstrual cycle abnormalities, weight gain, galactorrhea.[2] Also obtain a complete medical, surgical, medication and family history.

History of adverse pregnancy and neonatal outcomes should also be sought.[4]

Symptoms of depression, anxiety, psychosis, cognitive impairments such as memory loss can be present.[5] Rarely patients can present with ascites,[6] rhabdomyolysis, and pericardial effusion.[7]

Patients can also present with carpal tunnel syndrome, sleep apnea, hyponatremia, Hypercholesterolemia, congestive heart failure, and prolonged QT interval.[2]

A physical examination may reveal an enlarged thyroid gland, the presence of nodules, prolonged ankle reflex relaxation time, hoarse voice, and skin and hair changes.[2]

Evaluation

Serum TSH level is used to screen for primary hypothyroidism in most patients. In overt hypothyroidism, TSH levels are elevated, and free T4 levels are low. In subclinical hypothyroidism, TSH levels are elevated, and free T4 levels are normal.[2]

Central hypothyroidism is of pituitary or hypothalamic origin. TSH produced can be biologically inactive and can affect the levels of bioactive TSH, hence diagnosis of central hypothyroidism should be based on free T4 rather than TSH.[2]

Labs should include evaluation for autoimmune thyroid diseases with levels of anti-thyroid antibodies: the thyroid peroxidase antibodies and anti-thyroglobulin antibodies. Particularly in patients with thyroid nodules, fine-needle aspiration biopsy should be considered.[2]

Patients with subclinical hypothyroidism and thyroid peroxidase antibody positivity have a greater risk of developing overt hypothyroidism[2] and should be followed up periodically with clinical evaluation and lab tests for the same.

T3 levels are not a reliable or recommended test. Hospitalized patients should undergo TSH testing only when thyroid dysfunction is suspected.[2]

On labs, hyperlipidemia, elevated serum CK, elevated hepatic enzymes, anemia can be present.[2]

BUN, creatinine, and uric acid levels can also be elevated.[8]

Medical Management

Hypothyroidism is mainly treated with levothyroxine monotherapy.[9]

Thyroid replacement treatment can exacerbate co-existing adrenal insufficiency. Patients with known or suspected adrenal insufficiency should be tested and treated for the adrenal insufficiency while awaiting results.[2] Adrenal insufficiency can also be associated with subclinical hypothyroidism that is reversible with treatment of adrenal insufficiency.[10] In patients who have confirmed adrenal insufficiency consider a reassessment of thyroid tests following adequate treatment of adrenal insufficiency.

Replacement levothyroxine dose is 1.6 mcg/kg per day, should be taken 60 minutes before a meal and at least 3 hours post-meal which makes before breakfast or at bedtime the practical times for most patients. Maintaining a consistent formulation or brand of levothyroxine is important.[9]

When switching to the intravenous (IV) form, reduce the dose to 70% of the oral dose. Malabsorption syndromes, medications such as sucralfate, calcium preparations, and bile acid sequestrants can interfere with the absorption of levothyroxine.[2]

Based on the 2012 Clinical Practice Guidelines for Hypothyroidism in Adults by American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association, therapy should be monitored and titrated based on TSH measurements. Serum free T4 can also be used. Labs should be drawn every 4 to 8 weeks until target levels are achieved after starting the treatment, after any dose changes, changes in formulation or brand of levothyroxine,[2] after starting or stopping of any medications that may affect levels. If stable, then monitoring interval can be extended to 6 months, and if stable then, further monitoring can be extended to 12 months or can be done at shorter intervals on a case-to-case basis along with clinical evaluation.[2] Central hypothyroidism should be monitored based on free T4 rather than TSH.[2]

For elderly patients and patients with cardiac diseases, starting at a lower dose and titrating slowly is recommended.[9] Patients with cardiac disease should be monitored for the development of any symptoms of angina.[2] Monitor for side effects of treatment such as atrial fibrillation and osteoporosis.[9]

Effective treatment should achieve a clinical improvement of signs and symptoms, along with an improved sense of patient well-being and normal TSH (or free T4 levels as applicable).[11]

A comprehensive differential diagnosis workup is recommended for unresolved symptoms in the presence of biochemical euthyroidism. There is a lack of strong evidence supporting the routine inclusion of triiodothyronine (T3) preparations with levothyroxine in the treatment of hypothyroidism.[12]

If symptoms persist despite normalization of TSH/free T4 levels, then consultation with an endocrinologist should also be considered.

Nursing Management

• Assess client weight and appetite

• Consult with a dietitian to provide a menu for the patient (an increased fiber to counter constipation)

• Educate the patient and family

• Manage constipation with laxatives

• Encourage patient to use moisturizer if the skin is dry

• Educate patient on compliance with thyroid hormone therapy

• Encourage exercise

• Check labs for levels of thyroid hormone

• Monitor fluid intake

• Encourage patient to follow with a mental health nurse since depression is common in hypothyroidism

Monitor for signs and symptoms of overtreatment with levothyroxine. Indications of overtreatment mimic signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism such as anxiety, palpitations, tachycardia, heat intolerance, fever, excessive sweating, changes in appetite and weight loss. Report any signs of cardiac excitability, chest pain, and dysrhythmias to the medical provider. 

Coordination of Care

Hypothyroidism affects multiple organ systems across all age groups and affects patient well-being and ability to function on a daily basis. Treatment is with levothyroxine monotherapy (Grade A, Best Evidence Level 1).[2]

Effective treatment calls for a team-based and patient-centered approach. When patient symptoms are not adequately controlled an endocrinology consult should be obtained.

Endocrinology consultation is also recommended in complex scenarios such as preconception, pregnancy, congenital and pediatric hypothyroidism, failure of treatment, co-existing cardiac or other endocrine disorders, difficulty in interpretation of thyroid test results, drug-induced hypothyroidism.[2] Other specialists that may be needed are a psychiatrist, obstetrician-gynecologist, pediatrician, cardiologist, and intensivist.

It is helpful to work closely with a pharmacist to determine medication and food interactions, the effect of changes in levothyroxine formulations, to investigate the causes for the requirement of unusually high doses of levothyroxine or fluctuating TSH levels. Prompt notification of unusually high levels of TSH by laboratory personnel, close monitoring of vital signs and mental status by nurses can facilitate early treatment and better outcomes, especially in the inpatient setting such as in myxedema coma. Rapid response teams can be effectively utilized when hypothyroidism causes hemodynamic instability.

Health Teaching and Health Promotion

Advise patients that treatment for hypothyroidism is lifelong.

Instruct clients that it is essential to take medications 30-60 minutes before the first meal of the dayand not to take with medications as there are several food and medications interactions.

Review Questions

Figure

Tablets or scalpel: Pituitary hyperplasia due to primary hypothyroidism. Contributed from Ahmed Imran Siddiqi MBBS, MRCP Stephanie E. Baldeweg MD, FRCP, FRCP Et al Radiology Case Reports ,Volume 10, Issue 2, 2015, 1099

References

Taylor PN, Albrecht D, Scholz A, Gutierrez-Buey G, Lazarus JH, Dayan CM, Okosieme OE. Global epidemiology of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018 May;14(5):301-316. [PubMed: 29569622]

Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H, Hennessey JV, Klein I, Mechanick JI, Pessah-Pollack R, Singer PA, Woeber KA., American Association Of Clinical Endocrinologists And American Thyroid Association Taskforce On Hypothyroidism In Adults. Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid. 2012 Dec;22(12):1200-35. [PubMed: 22954017]

Khoury T, Kadah A, Mari A, Sbeit W, Drori A, Mahamid M. Thyroid Dysfunction is Prevalent in Autoimmune Hepatitis: A Case Control Study. Isr Med Assoc J. 2020 Feb;22(2):100-103. [PubMed: 32043327]

Hollowell JG, Staehling NW, Flanders WD, Hannon WH, Gunter EW, Spencer CA, Braverman LE. Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Feb;87(2):489-99. [PubMed: 11836274]

Anand A, Singh KR, Kushwaha JK, Hussain N, Sonkar AA. Papillary Thyroid Cancer and Hashimoto's Thyroiditis: An Association Less Understood. Indian J Surg Oncol. 2014 Sep;5(3):199-204. [PMC free article: PMC4235865] [PubMed: 25419066]

Hou J, Yu P, Zhu H, Pan H, Li N, Yang H, Jiang Y, Wang L, Wang B, Wang Y, You L, Chen S. The impact of maternal hypothyroidism during pregnancy on neonatal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2016;32(1):9-13. [PubMed: 26527131]

Samuels MH. Psychiatric and cognitive manifestations of hypothyroidism. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2014 Oct;21(5):377-83. [PMC free article: PMC4264616] [PubMed: 25122491]

Khalid S, Asad-Ur-Rahman F, Abbass A, Gordon D, Abusaada K. Myxedema Ascites: A Rare Presentation of Uncontrolled Hypothyroidism. Cureus. 2016 Dec 05;8(12):e912. [PMC free article: PMC5215814] [PubMed: 28083456]

Zare-Khormizi MR, Rahmanian M, Pourrajab F, Akbarnia S. Massive pericardial effusion and rhabdomyolysis secondary to untreated severe hypothyroidism: the first report. Acta Clin Belg. 2014 Oct;69(5):375-8. [PubMed: 25056490]

Saini V, Yadav A, Arora MK, Arora S, Singh R, Bhattacharjee J. Correlation of creatinine with TSH levels in overt hypothyroidism - a requirement for monitoring of renal function in hypothyroid patients? Clin Biochem. 2012 Feb;45(3):212-4. [PubMed: 22061337]

Jonklaas J, Bianco AC, Bauer AJ, Burman KD, Cappola AR, Celi FS, Cooper DS, Kim BW, Peeters RP, Rosenthal MS, Sawka AM., American Thyroid Association Task Force on Thyroid Hormone Replacement. Guidelines for the treatment of hypothyroidism: prepared by the american thyroid association task force on thyroid hormone replacement. Thyroid. 2014 Dec;24(12):1670-751. [PMC free article: PMC4267409] [PubMed: 25266247]

Abdullatif HD, Ashraf AP. Reversible subclinical hypothyroidism in the presence of adrenal insufficiency. Endocr Pract. 2006 Sep-Oct;12(5):572. [PubMed: 17002934]

Guglielmi R, Frasoldati A, Zini M, Grimaldi F, Gharib H, Garber JR, Papini E. ITALIAN ASSOCIATION OF CLINICAL ENDOCRINOLOGISTS STATEMENT-REPLACEMENT THERAPY FOR PRIMARY HYPOTHYROIDISM: A BRIEF GUIDE FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE. Endocr Pract. 2016 Nov;22(11):1319-1326. [PubMed: 27482609]

Hennessey JV, Espaillat R. Current evidence for the treatment of hypothyroidism with levothyroxine/levotriiodothyronine combination therapy versus levothyroxine monotherapy. Int J Clin Pract. 2018 Feb;72(2) [PMC free article: PMC5873391] [PubMed: 29381251]

Mathew V, Misgar RA, Ghosh S, Mukhopadhyay P, Roychowdhury P, Pandit K, Mukhopadhyay S, Chowdhury S. Myxedema coma: a new look into an old crisis. J Thyroid Res. 2011;2011:493462. [PMC free article: PMC3175396] [PubMed: 21941682]

Which of the following is a clinical manifestation of hypothyroidism?

Which signs symptoms indicate the client with hypothyroidism is not taking enough thyroid hormone?

Which signs symptoms should make the nurse suspect the patient is experiencing a thyroid storm?

What signs symptoms would the nurse expect to see in a client who has been admitted to the unit with a diagnosis of hyperthyroidism?