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Perceiving Others
Terms in this set (60)
Healthy relationships are
founded upon recognizing our perceptual limits, constant striving to correct perceptual errors, and sincere effort invested in considering others' viewpoints
Perception
process of selecting (info to pay attention to), organizing (info into a pattern), and interpreting (its meaning) from our senses
*what's real and what isn't
Selection
focusing attention on certain senses
(her communication, her loud and angry voice, the certain
phrase)
Salience
the degree to which particular people/aspects of their communication attracts our attention
*seems especially noticeable and significant
What determines salience?
communication that
*deviates from expectations
*if our expectations lead us to view it as significant (anticipating a phone
call)
*behaves in a visualy & audibly stimulating way
Organization
take info and structure it into a coherent pattern (organize a mental representation in your head)
Punctuation
*happens during organization
structuring info you've selected into chronological sequence that matches how you experienced the order of events
*Two people may punctuate the same encounter differently ~ leads to frustration and conflict
Interpretation
assigning meaning to information
*recall familiar & relevant info to make sense of what is happening
*create explanations for why things are happening as they are
*our interpretations reflect what we presume to be true
*same info: old vs new employee
Schemata
knowledge we draw on; mental structure that define the characteristics of various concepts (& how they're all related)
Attributions
explanation for others' comments/behaviors
*answers to the "why" questions
why didn't he text me back?
Two Forms of Attributions:
Internal and External
Internal Attributions
presumes a person's behavior stems from internal causes (personality/character)
"Janet tripped because she's clumsy"
External Attributions
a person's communication is caused by factors unrelated to personal qualities (like environment)
Monahan didn't email me back because she's busy
Fundamental Attribution Error
tendency to attribute others' behavior solely to internal causes (kind of person they are)
*THEY (not the environment) dominate our perception; are most salient
common mistake; especially online
Actor-Observer Effect
tendency of people to make external attributions regarding their own behaviors
*prevalent in unpleasant reactions
*Ex: our own impolite remarks are viewed as "reactions to the hurtful communication" instead of "messages caused by my insensitivity"
Self-Serving Bias
take credit for noteworthy success by making an internal attribution
*driven by Ego Protection
Ego Protection
crediting ourselves for our life successes so we can feel happier about who we are
Combination stems from
both internal and external causes
Uncertainty Reduction Theory
reduce uncertainty about our communication partners by gathering enough info about them so they're predictable and explainable
*primary compulsion during initial interactions
Reduced Uncertainty leads to
perceiving people as likable or attractive; talk further
Unable to reduce it: negative impressions; avoid communication
Ways to Reduce Uncertainty:
1. Passive- observe how they act w/ others
2. Active- ask others about
them (use caution)
3. Interactive- most effective; direct interaction w/ person
Most Powerful Influences on Perception:
Culture, Gender, and Personality
Perception and Culture points:
1. Other cultures have different knowledge in schemata, so they interpret others' communication in different ways
2. Culture affects whether
you perceive others as similar or different to yourself
Ingroupers
people that you share substantial point sod cultural commonality with (nationality, religion, socioeconomic class, politics, etc)
*we like people like us
*more likely to give valued resources (time, money, effort) to
Outgroupers
people who aren't similar
*it's easy to make mistakes. don't judge; could lose a potential relationship
Brain's Cerebral Cortex structure differs
in men & women
Though ultimately they're more similar than different.
Men can
*perceive time and speed more accurately
*mentally rotate 3D figures easily
*focus on
solutions
*view women's needs for emotional support as unreasonable
Women can
*understand and manipulate spatial relationships b/w objects better
*accuratley identify others' emotions
*can better process language and voacb info (use both frontal lobes)
*see men's solutions as unsympathetic
Only __% of communication behavior is caused by Gender
1%
People are socialized to believe that men and women communicate differently in
Western Culture (speech example)
Personality
individual's characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and acting based on traits (enduring motives and impulse) that they possess
OCEAN
openness
conscientiousness (aka dependability; degree of organization and pursing goals)
extraversion
agreeableness
neuroticism (aka emotional stability; the degree of negative thoughts about yourself)
We prioritize our own traits when perceiving others:
ex: extraverts notice extraversion (it's more salient to them)
we like in others
the same traits we like about ourselves
we dislike in others what we dislike in ourselves
Implicit Personality Theories
personal beliefs about different types of personalities and the ways in which the traits cluster together
*creates your perception of others
*perceive just a little and presume a great deal more (can be risky)
Interpersonal Impressions
mental pictures of who people are and how we feel about them
*using perception to size up other people
*ex: Ted Bundy, serial killer
Impressions are:
positive, neutral, negative, made quickly, some take a long time
All aspects of perception shape impressions (info we select, organizing it, interpretations, and uncertainty)
Gestalt
general sense of a person that's either positive or negative
way to form impression
Making a Gestalt
discern a few traits, compare to schemata, arrive at judgement
result? impression of person as a whole rather than individual parts
Gestalt Characteristics:
*form rapidly (why 1st impression is crucial)
*require little mental or communicative effort
*useful for quick encounters (job interview)
*useful for conferences or casual relationships
*significant shortcomings
*form broad impression & then walk away
Pollyanna Effects:
*people believing pleasant events are more likely to happen than negative
*perceive optimists, happy
lives
Positivity Bias
when Gestalts are formed, they're more likely to be positive than negative
*good in initiating relationships
*could lead to bad ones (abusive)
Negativity Effect
placing emphasis on the negative info we learn about others
*perceive negative info as more informative about "true character"
*can
lead to accurate perceptions (lady formed negative Gestalt about Ted Bundy)
*can also lead to inaccurate perceptions
People believe that positive events are more common, so
when you learn something negative, it's unusual (more salient)
*We weigh it more heavily
Halo Effect
tendency to positively interpret what someone says/does b/c we have a positive Gestalt of them
*Person we like: positive behavior = internal, negative behavior = external
Horn Effect
tendency to negatively interpret what someone says/does b/c we have a negative Gestalt of them
*Person we like: positive behavior = external, negative behavior = internal
Algebraic Impressions
carefully evaluating each new thing we learn about a person
*add and subtract positive and negative things to form an overall impression; modify when learning new info
*way of forming impressions
Algebraic Impressions vs Gestalts
Algebraic: more accurate, flexible, not as efficient (require mental energy) lengthy, not useful in unexpected/casual encounters,
Gestalt: efficient, quick interactions, useful in casual convos
We weight info depending on
importance and positivity or negativity
attractive > fav color
Stereotyping
categorizing people into social groups and then evaluating them based on info about "said groups" in our schemata
*overly simplistic interpersonal impressions
*way to form impressions
Stereotyping is
the most common way we form impressions
*almost impossible to avoid
*social group categories are the first thing we notice
*internet makes it worse
Stereotyping Characteristics:
*contradictory behavior actually strengthens the stereotype
*actively seek out characteristics that
conform stereotype
*we sadly believe they're valid & legitimate
Malcolm X
changed his perception; tossed aside previous conclusions
Improving Your Perception of Others
1. Offer empathy
2. Embrace world-mindedness
3. Check your perception
Empathy
feeling into others' thoughts and emotions, making an attempt to understand their perspectives and be aware of their feelings in order to identify w/ them
Empathy consists of
1. Perspective Taking- seeing it from their point of view
2. Empathic Concern- becoming aware of how they feel, sometimes experience emotions yourself
Conveying Empathy
i'm genuinely interested in your viewpoint
your view is important and understandable
i care about you and your feelings
here is how i feel about your situation
World Mindedness
acceptance of and respect toward other cultures' beliefs, values, and customs; respect their right to possess different viewpoints
*opposite of ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism
belief that one's own cultural beliefs, attitudes, values, and practices are superior to those of others (center of everything)
think they're competent and everyone else isn't
Perception-Checking
rearranging your thought patterns and tossing aside previous conclusions when they prove to be wrong.
5 steps:
Steps of Perception-Checking
1. check your punctuation (who/what started/ended it) Know that others have different viewpoints
2. check your knowledge (ask for the truth directly)
3. check your attributions (internal vs external)
4. check perceptual influences (ingroupers/outgroupers and why?)
5. check your impressions (reflect, realize gestalts can create bias, resist stereotyping)
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