Organizational Behavior - IntroductionOrganizational Behavior (OB) can be defined as the understanding, prediction and management of human behavior both individually or in a group that occur within an organization. Show
Internal and external perspectives are the two theories of how organizational behavior can be viewed from an organization’s point of view. In this tutorial, we will be learning in detail about both the theories. Importance of OBWhile working in an organization, it is very important to understand others behavior as well as make others understand ours. In order to maintain a healthy working environment, we need to adapt to the environment and understand the goals we need to achieve. This can be done easily if we understand the importance of OB. Following points bring out the importance of OB −
Thus studying organizational behavior helps in recognizing the patterns of human behavior and in turn throw light on how these patterns profoundly influence the performance of an organization. Organizational Behavior - DeterminantsThere are three major factors that affect OB. The working environment being the base for all three factors, they are also known as the determinants of OB. The three determinants are −
PeopleAn organization consists of people with different traits, personality, skills, qualities, interests, background, beliefs, values and intelligence. In order to maintain a healthy environment, all the employees should be treated equally and be judged according to their work and other aspects that affects the firm. Example − A company offers campus placement to trainees from different states like Orissa, Haryana, Arunachal Pradesh and many more. However, during and after training, all trainees are examined only on the basis of their performance in the tasks assigned. Organizational StructureStructure is the layout design of an organization. It is the construction and arrangement of relationships, strategies according to the organizational goal. Example − Organizational structure defines the relation of a manager with employees and co-workers. TechnologyTechnology can be defined as the implementation of scientific knowledge for practical usage. It also provides the resources required by the people that affect their work and task performance in the right direction. Example − Introduction of SAP, big data and other software in the market determines individual and organizational performance. EnvironmentAll companies function within a given internal and external environment. Internal environment can be defined as the conditions, factors, and elements within an enterprise that influences the activities, choices made by the firm, and especially the behavior of the employees. While external environment can be defined as outside factors that affect the company's ability to operate. Some of them can be manipulated by the company’s marketing, while others require the company to make adjustments. Some examples of internal environment include employee morale, culture changes, financial changes or issues, and some examples of external environment include political factors, changes to the economy and the company itself. Organizational Behavior - ConceptsThe concept of OB is based on two key elements namely −
Nature of PeopleIn simple words, nature of people is the basic qualities of a person, or the character that personifies an individual they can be similar or unique. Talking at the organizational level, some major factors affecting the nature of people have been highlighted. They are −
Nature of OrganizationNature of organization states the motive of the firm. It is the opportunities it provides in the global market. It also defines the employees’ standard; in short, it defines the character of the company by acting as a mirror reflection of the company. We can understand the nature of any firm with its social system, the mutual interest it shares and the work ethics. Let us take a quick look at all these factors −
Organizational Behavior - ScopeIn a very broad sense, the scope of OB is the extent to which it can govern or influence the operations of an organization. The scope of OB integrates 3 concepts respectively − Individual BehaviorIt is the study of individual’s personality, learning, attitudes, motivation, and job satisfaction. In this study, we interact with others in order to study about them and make our perception about them. Example − The personal interview round is conducted to interact with candidates to check their skills, apart from those mentioned in the resume. Inter-individual BehaviorIt is the study conducted through communication between the employees among themselves as well as their subordinates, understanding people’s leadership qualities, group dynamics, group conflicts, power and politics. Example − A meeting to decide list of new board members. Group BehaviorGroup behavior studies the formation of organization, structure of organization and effectiveness of organization. The group efforts made towards the achievement of organization’s goal is group behavior. In short, it is the way how a group behaves. Example − Strike, rally etc. Functions of a ManagerFunctions of a manager are the various roles played by the manager in an organization. A manager is accountable for all the happenings in the firm and is answerable to the management. The seven major roles played by the manager are −
Roles of a ManagerNow, let us see what exactly are these roles and their importance. Starting with the first role.
Various Challenges of a ManagerWe have seen the different roles a manager as to play in order to maintain the workflow balance in an organization. With all these responsibilities, there are some tough challenges a manager has to deal with while trying to balance everything. Following are some challenges a manager has to deal with −
Organizational Behavior - ModelsOrganizational behavior reflects the behavior of the people and management all together, it is considered as field study not just a discipline. A discipline is an accepted science that is based upon theoretical foundation, whereas OB is an inter-disciplinary approach where knowledge from different disciplines like psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. are included. It is used to solve organizational problems, especially those related to human beings. There are four different types of models in OB. We will throw some light on each of these four models. Autocratic ModelThe root level of this model is power with a managerial orientation of authority. The employees in this model are oriented towards obedience and discipline. They are dependent on their boss. The employee requirement that is met is subsistence. The performance result is less. The major drawbacks of this model are people are easily frustrated, insecurity, dependency on the superiors, minimum performance because of minimum wage. Custodial ModelThe root level of this model is economic resources with a managerial orientation of money. The employees in this model are oriented towards security and benefits provided to them. They are dependent on the organization. The employee requirement that is met is security. This model is adapted by firms having high resources as the name suggest. It is dependent on economic resources. This approach directs to depend on firm rather than on manager or boss. They give passive cooperation as they are satisfied but not strongly encouraged. Supportive ModelThe root level of this model is leadership with a managerial orientation of support. The employees in this model are oriented towards their job performance and participation. The employee requirement that is met is status and recognition. The performance result is awakened drives. This model is dependent on leadership strive. It gives a climate to help employees grow and accomplish the job in the interest of the organization. Management job is to assist the employee’s job performance. Employees feel a sense of participation. Collegial ModelThe root level of this model is partnership with a managerial orientation of teamwork. The employees in this model are oriented towards responsible behavior and self-discipline. The employee requirement that is met is self-actualization. The performance result is moderate zeal. This is an extension of supportive model. The team work approach is adapted for this model. Self-discipline is maintained. Workers feel an obligation to uphold quality standard for the better image of the company. A sense of “accept” and “respect” is seen. Organizational Behavior - LearningLearning can be defined as the permanent change in behavior due to direct and indirect experience. It means change in behavior, attitude due to education and training, practice and experience. It is completed by acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are relatively permanent. Nature of LearningNature of learning means the characteristic features of learning. Learning involves change; it may or may not guarantee improvement. It should be permanent in nature, that is learning is for lifelong. The change in behavior is the result of experience, practice and training. Learning is reflected through behavior. Factors Affecting LearningLearning is based upon some key factors that decide what changes will be caused by this experience. The key elements or the major factors that affect learning are motivation, practice, environment, and mental group. Coming back to these factors let us have a look on these factors −
These are the main factors that influence what a person learns, these are the root level for our behavior and everything we do is connected to what we learn. How Learning Occurs?Learning can be understood clearly with the help of some theories that will explain our behavior. Some of the remarkable theories are −
Classical Conditioning TheoryThe classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is coupled with an unconditioned stimulus. Usually, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is an impartial stimulus like the sound of a tuning fork, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is biologically effective like the taste of food and the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response like salivation or sweating. After this coupling process is repeated (for example, some learning may already occur after a single coupling), an individual shows a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus, when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. The conditioned response is mostly similar to the unconditioned response, but unlike the unconditioned response, it must be acquired through experience and is nearly impermanent. Operant Conditioning TheoryOperant conditioning theory is also known as instrumental conditioning. This theory is a learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by its outcomes. Let’s take an example of a child. A child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove. In comparison, the classical conditioning develops a relationship between a stimulus and a behavior. The example can be further elaborated as the child may learn to salivate at the sight of candy, or to tremble at the sight of an angry parent. In the 20th century, the study of animal learning was commanded by the analysis of these two sorts of learning, and they are still at the core of behavior analysis. Social Learning TheoryThe key assumptions of social learning theory are as follows −
Cognitive Learning TheoryCognition defines a person’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretation, understanding about himself and environment. This theory considers learning as the outcome of deliberate thinking on a problem or situation based upon known facts and responding in an objective and more oriented manner. It perceives that a person learns the meaning of various objects and events and also learns the response depending upon the meaning assigned to the stimuli. This theory debates that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory which stores organized information about the various events that occurs. Learning & Organizational Behavior An individual’s behavior in an organization is directly or indirectly affected by learning. Example − Employee skill, manager’s attitude are all learned. Behavior can be improved by following the listed tips −
Organizational Behavior - PersonalityThe word personality is derived from a Greek word “persona” which means “to speak through.” Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that forms a person’s unique identity. It signifies the role which a person plays in public. Every individual has a unique, personal and major determinant of his behavior that defines his/her personality. Personality trait is basically influenced by two major features −
Inherited CharacteristicsThe features an individual acquires from their parents or forefathers, in other words the gifted features an individual possesses by birth is considered as inherited characteristics. It consists of the following features −
Learned CharacteristicsNobody learns everything by birth. First, our school is our home, then our society, followed by educational institutes. The characteristics an individual acquires by observing, practicing, and learning from others and the surroundings is known as learned characteristics. Learned characteristics includes the following features −
Traits of PersonalityPersonality traits are the enduring features that define an individual’s behavior. A personality trait is a unique feature in an individual. Psychologists resolved that there are five major personality traits and every individual can be categorized into at least one of them. These five personality traits are −
Major Personality AttributesFollowing are the five major personality attributes that influence OB − Locus of ControlLocus of control is the center of control of an individual’s code of conduct. People can be grouped into two categories i.e., internals and externals respectively. People who consider themselves as the masters of their own fates are known as internals, while, those who affirm that their lives are controlled by outside forces known as externals. Before making any decision, internals actively search for information, they are achievement driven, and want to command their environment. Thus, internals do well on jobs that craves complex information processing, taking initiative and independent action. Externals, on the other hand, are more compliant, more willing to follow instructions, so, they do well in structured, routine jobs. MachiavellianismMachiavellianism is being practical, emotionally distant, and believing that ends justify means. Machiavellians are always wanting to win and are great persuaders. Here are the significant features of a high-mach individuals −
Self-esteemIt is the extent up to which people either like or dislike themselves. Self-Esteem is directly related to the expectations of success and on-the-job satisfaction. Individuals with high self-esteem think that they have what it takes to succeed. So, they take more challenges while selecting a job. On the other hand, individuals with low self-esteem are more susceptible to external distractions. So, they are more likely to seek the approval of others and to adapt the beliefs and behaviors of those they respect. Self-monitoringSelf-monitoring is the capability of regulating one’s behavior according to social situations. Individuals with high self-monitoring skill easily adjust their behavior according to external, situational factors. Their impulsive talents allow them to present public personae which are completely different from their private personalities. However, people with low self-monitoring skills cannot cover themselves. Regardless of any situation, they are always themselves. They have an attitude of, “what you see is what you get.” Risk takingGenerally, managers are reluctant on taking risks. However, individual risk-taking inclination affects the bulk of information required by the managers and how long it takes them to make decisions. Thus, it is very important to recognize these differences and align risk-taking propensity with precise job demands that can make sense. Theories of PersonalityA theory is a simple model of reality that helps us understand, explain, predict and deal with reality. We have some theories that explain an individual’s personality. Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic TheoryThis theory is based on the belief that man is encouraged more by unforeseen forces than the conscious and logical thought. Freud believed that most of the things in life are not present at the conscious level but they are present at an unconscious level. The features of Freud’s theory include three attributes − Id, Ego, and Superego.
Erikson’s TheoryThis theory states that personality is groomed throughout lifetime. He presents eight distinct stages each with two possible outcomes. Successful completion of each stage leads to a healthy personality. These stages are −
Sheldon’s Physiognomy TheoryThis theory was proposed by William Sheldon. He presents personalities by classifying individuals into convenient categories based on their body shapes. They are −
EndomorphsIn this category, the body is soft and spherical. People with this kind of personality love comfort, eat a lot, like to be around people and desire affection. Some common endomorph features are large amount of fat accumulation, insatiable appetite, larger frame etc. Some endomorph personalities are John Goodman, Jack Black etc. MesomorphsIn this category, the body is hard and rectangular physique. People with this kind of personality like to take risk, are courageous and have power. Some common mesomorph features are wide shoulders, small waist, low body fat. Some mesomorph personalities are Jennifer Garner, Tina Turner etc. EctomorphsIn this category, the body is fragile, flat chest and delicate body. People with this kind of personality are anxious, ambitious and dedicated. Some common ectomorph features are narrow frame, low body fat, etc. Some notable ectomorph personalities are Brad Pitt, Bruce Lee etc. Organizational Behavior - PerceptionPerception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli to meaningful information. It is the process of interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind and use it later to judge and give a verdict on a situation, person, group etc. It can be divided into six types −
Perceptual ProcessPerceptual process are the different stages of perception we go through. The different stages are −
ReceivingReceiving is the first and most important stage in the process of perception. It is the initial stage in which a person collects all information and receives the information through the sense organs. SelectingSelecting is the second stage in the process. Here a person doesn’t receive the data randomly but selectively. A person selects some information out of all in accordance with his interest or needs. The selection of data is dominated by various external and internal factors.
OrganizingKeeping things in order or say in a synchronized way is organizing. In order to make sense of the data received, it is important to organize them. We can organize the data by −
InterpretingFinally, we have the process of interpreting which means forming an idea about a particular object depending upon the need or interest. Interpretation means that the information we have sensed and organized, is finally given a meaning by turning it into something that can be categorized. It includes stereotyping, halo effect etc. Importance of Perception in OBWe need to understand what the role of perception in an organization is. It is very important in establishing different role of perceptions like −
For example, every member in a group has to be clear regarding the role allotted to them. Programmer writes the code, tester checks it, etc. Organizational Behavior - MotivationMotivation can be described as the internal force that impacts the direction, intensity, and endurance of a person’s voluntary choice of behavior. It consists of −
Example − A team leader encourages team members to work efficiently. Features of MotivationMotivation is an internal feeling, that is, it defines the psychological state of a person. It is a continuous process and we should make sure that it is not disturbed. A person should be encouraged completely. Motivation consists of three interacting and dependent elements −
Importance of MotivationWe need to motivate employees because of the following reasons −
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs TheoryThis theory was produced in order to answer the question “What motivates an individual”. Every second need comes to force when the first need is satisfied completely. Maslow explained the hierarchy of needs by grouping them into two: deficiency needs and growth needs. Physiological NeedsEvery individual needs to take care of the basic requirements required to sustain. These requirements include food to eat, clothing to wear and shelter to live in. These necessities are relatively independent of each other but are finite. Safety NeedsEverybody wants to stay in a protected environment with minimal danger so that they can have a peaceful life. Safety needs basically includes protection from physiological danger like accident and having economic security like bank accounts, health insurance In an enterprise, it includes job security, salary increment, etc. The managerial practice to satisfy this involves offering pension scheme, provident fund, gratuity etc. Social NeedsWe have all heard that man is a social animal, we want to be there with those people where we are loved and we are accepted as we are; nobody wants to be judged. This is a common requirement every human desires. This theory helps managers to think about encouraging their employees by identifying employee needs. In short, it presents motivation as constantly changing force, expressing itself to the constant need for fulfilment of new and higher levels of needs. EsteemEsteem means the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People often involve in a profession or hobby to gain recognition, earn fame and respect. According to Maslow, the needs of humans have strict guidelines - the hierarchies rather than being sharply separated, are interrelated. This means that esteem and the consequent levels are not strictly separated but are closely related. Self-ActualizationSelf-actualization means realizing one’s full potential. Maslow describes this as a desire to complete everything that one can, to become the most that one can be. Theory X & Theory YOur management style is firmly influenced by our beliefs and assumptions about what encourages members of our team like: If we believe that our team members dislike work, then we tend towards an authoritarian style of management. However, if we assume that employees take pride in doing a good job, we tend to adopt a more participative style. Douglas McGregor, the eminent social psychologist, divides management style into two contrasting theories −
Theory XThis theory believes that employees are naturally unmotivated and dislike working, and this encourages an authoritarian style of management. According to this theory, management must firmly intervene to get things done. This style of management concludes that workers −
McGregor observed that X-type workers are in fact mostly in minority, and yet in mass organizations, such as large scale production environment, X Theory management may be needed and can be unavoidable. Theory YThis theory explains a participative style of management, that is, distributive in nature. It concludes that employees are happy to work, are self-motivated and creative, and enjoy working with greater responsibility. It estimates that workers −
In Y-type organizations, people at lower levels are engaged in decision making and have more responsibility. Comparing Theory X & Theory YLet us now compare both the theories − MotivationTheory X considers that people dislike work, they want to avoid it and do not take responsibilities willingly. While, Theory Y considers that people are self-motivated, and sportingly take responsibilities. Management Style and ControlIn Theory X-type organization, management is authoritarian, and centralized control is maintained. While in Theory Y-type organization, the management style is participative, employees are involved decision making, but the power retains to implement decisions. Work OrganizationTheory X employees are specialized and the same work cycle continues. In Theory Y, the work tends to be coordinated around wider areas of skill or knowledge. Employees are also motivated to develop expertise, and make suggestions and improvements. Rewards and AppraisalsTheory X-type organizations work on a ‘carrot and stick’ basis, and performance assessment is part of the overall mechanism of control and compensation. Coming to Theory Y-type organizations, appraisal is also regular and crucial, but is usually a separate mechanism from organizational controls. Theory Y-type organizations provide employees frequent opportunities for promotion. ApplicationAdmitting the fact that Theory X management style is widely accepted as inferior to others, it has its place in large scale production procedure and unskilled production-line work. Many of the principles of Theory Y are widely accepted by different types of organization that value and motivate active participation. Theory Y-style management is appropriate for knowledge work and licensed services. Licensed service organizations naturally develop Theory Y-type practices by the nature of their work, even high structure knowledge framework, like call center operations, benefit from its principles to motivate knowledge sharing and continuous improvement. Organizational Behavior - GroupsA group can be defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular objectives. A group behavior can be stated as a course of action a group takes as a family. For example: Strike. Types of GroupsThere are two types of groups an individual forms. They are formal groups and informal groups. Let us know about these two groups. Formal GroupsThese are the type of work groups created by the organization and have designated work assignments and rooted tasks. The behavior of such groups is directed toward achieving organizational goals. These can be further classified into two sub-groups −
Informal GroupsThese groups are formed with friendships and common interests. These can be further classified into two sub-groups −
Why Do People Join GroupsThere is no particular reason answering why individuals join groups. Group helps individual to feel stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and be more contrary to threats. The following points help us understand the need of joining a group by individuals −
Group RolesThe concept of roles is applicable to all employees within an organization as well as to their life outside the organization. A role is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to the one who occupies the position demanded by the social unit. Individuals play multiple roles at the same time. Employees attempt to understand what kind of behavior is expected from them. An individual when presented by divergent role expectations experiences role conflict. Group roles are divided into three types −
Task-oriented RolesRoles allotted to individuals according to their work and eligibility is known as task-oriented roles. Task-oriented roles can broadly divide individuals into six categories initiator, informer, clarifier, summarizer, reality tester and information seekers or providers respectively.
These roles present the work performed by different individuals according to their marked designation. Relationship-oriented RolesRoles that group individuals according to their efforts made to maintain healthy relationship in the group and achieve the goals are known as relationship-oriented roles. There are five categories of individuals in this category namely: harmonizer, gatekeeper, consensus tester, encourager, and compromiser.
These roles depict the various roles an individual plays to maintain healthy self as well as group relationships. Individual RolesRoles that classify a person according to the measure of individual effort put in the project aimed is known as individual roles. Five types of individuals fall into these roles: aggressor, blocker, dominator, cavalier, and avoidance.
These are the various roles a person plays in an organization. Well-Functioning GroupsWe know what a group is, why it is important to form a group, and what the group-oriented roles are. Now we need to know how to mark a group as a well-functioning group, what features are necessary for a group to mark it as efficient. A group is considered effective when it has the following characteristics.
Group Behavior – ExampleLet us understand group behavior with the help of an example. To work on a specific project, we make a group of 4 members: Rohit, Raj, Sid, and Rahul. It is not possible for any one of them to complete the project individually as it may be time consuming as well as not all the members as individuals have mastered the skills required to complete the project. This indicates the need to come together as a group. Moving ahead, let us specify their roles. Rohit is the initiator, as he proposes the idea of the project, Raj collects all the information and resources required for the project and becomes the informer, Sid is the clarifier as he interprets the data and saves refined information, and Rahul is the summarizer as he concludes the result of the project that is what do we achieve by the end of our project. These are the task-oriented roles. When a group of people come together and present their ideas there is a fair chance of collision. Rohit tries to resolve all the disagreements and disputes in the first place and acts as a harmonizer, Sid makes sure that everybody is giving their full support and effort in the project and acts as a gatekeeper, Raj is the one encouraging everyone and motivating them when they fail to try harder to complete the project and is the encourager, while Rahul tests the project at each stage and examines the major decision to be made and is the consensus tester. These are the relationship-oriented roles of each member. Individually, each of them have different tasks to fulfill. Rohit tries to be the group leader and impose his ideas on others and we consider him as the dominator, Rahul is always up with excuses to avoid the task given to him and acts as avoider, Raj is the one who opposes everything but is never up with some new idea and becomes the blocker, while Sid takes part in every group activity in a non-productive way and becomes the cavalier. Reference GroupsIt is a group to which a person or another group is compared. Reference groups are used in order to examine and determine the nature of a person or other group's features and sociological attributes. It is the group to which a person relates or aspires to link himself or herself psychologically. It is important for deciding a person's self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. It becomes the ground of reference in making comparisons or contrasts and in judging one's appearance and performance. These groups act as a benchmark and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics. An example of a reference group, would be the certainty of wealth. An individual in the US with an annual income of $70,000, may consider himself rich if he compares himself to those in the middle income strata, who earn roughly $22,000 a year. However, if the same person considers the relevant reference group to be those in the top 0.5% of households in the US, those making $1.8 million or more, then the individual's income of $70,000 would make him seem rather poor. Group Decision MakingGroup decision-making commonly known as collaborative decision-making is a situation faced when individuals collectively make a choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no longer attributable to any individual group member as all the individuals and social group processes like social influence contribute to the decision outcome. The decisions made by groups are mostly different from those made by individuals. For example, groups tend to make decisions that are more extreme than those made by individual members, as individuals tend to be biased. Advantages of Group Decision MakingGroup decision making has two advantages over individual decision making. SynergyIt is the idea that the whole is greater than the aggregate of its parts. When a group makes a decision collectively, its judgment can be powerful than that of any of its members. Through discussing, questioning, and collaborative approach, group members can identify more complete and robust solutions and recommendations. Sharing of informationGroup decisions take into account a wider scope of information as each group member may contribute distinct information and expertise. Sharing information increases understanding, clarifies issues, and facilitates movement towards a collective decision. Disadvantages of Group Decision MakingThe major disadvantages of group decision making are as follows − Diffusion of ResponsibilityGroup decision making results in distribution of responsibility that results in lack of accountability for outcomes. In this way, everyone is responsible for a decision, and no one really is. Moreover, group decisions can make it easier for members to refuse personal responsibilities and blame others for bad decisions. Lower EfficiencyGroup decisions can sometimes be less efficient than individual decisions. It takes additional time because there is a need of active participation, discussion, and coordination among group members. Without good facilitation and structure, meetings can get eliminated in trivial details that may matter a lot to one person but not to the others. GroupthinkOne of the biggest disadvantage of effective group decision making is groupthink. It is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the wish for harmony or conformity results in an illogical or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. By refraining themselves from outside influences and actively suppressing opposing viewpoints in the interest of minimizing conflict, group members reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of substitute viewpoints. Groupthink sometimes produces dehumanizing actions against the out-group. Group Decision-Making TechniquesIn order to eliminate group think and group shift from a group, we can use four different techniques that will help us make a collaborative decision that is best for the group. These techniques are −
BrainstormingThis technique includes a group of people, mostly between five and ten in number, sitting around a table, producing ideas in the form of free association. The main focus is on generation of ideas and not on evaluation of these ideas. If more ideas can be originated, then it is likely that there will be a unique and creative idea among them. All these ideas are written on the blackboard with a piece of chalk so that all the team members can see every idea and try to improvise these ideas. Brainstorming technique is very effective when the problem is comparatively precise and can be simply defined. A complex problem can be divided into parts and each part can be dealt with separately at a time. Nominal Group ThinkingThis technique is similar to brainstorming except that this approach is more structured. It motivates individual creativity. Members form the group for namesake and operate independently, originate ideas for solving the problem on their own, in silence and in writing. Members do not communicate well with each other so that strong personality domination is evaded. The group coordinator either collects the written ideas or writes them on a large blackboard so that each member of the group can see what the ideas are. These ideas are further discussed one by one in turn and each participant is motivated to comment on these ideas in order to clarify and improve them. After all these ideas have been discussed, they are evaluated for their merits and drawbacks and each actively participating member is needed to vote on each idea and allot it a rank on the basis of priority of each alternative solution. The idea with the highest cumulative ranking is selected as the final solution to the problem. Didactic InteractionThis technique is applicable only in certain situations, but is an excellent method when a situation actually demands it. The type of problem should be such that it generates output in the form of yes or no. Say for example, a decision is to be made whether to buy or not to buy a product, to merge or not to merge, to expand or not to expand and so on. These types of decision requires an extensive and exhaustive discussion and investigation since a wrong decision can have serious consequences. There are many advantages as well as disadvantages of this type of situation. The group that makes the decision is divided into two sub-groups, one in favor of the “go” decision and the opposing in favor of “no go” decision. The first group enlists all the “pros” of the problem solution and the second group lists all the “cons”. These groups meet and discuss their discoveries and their reasons. After tiring discussions, the groups switch sides and try to find weaknesses in their own original standpoints. This interchange of ideas and understanding of various viewpoints results in mutual acceptance of the facts as they exist so that a solution can be put together around these facts and ultimately a final decision is reached. Delphi TechniqueThis technique is the improvised version of the nominal group technique, except that it involves obtaining the opinions of experts physically distant from each other and unknown to each other. This isolates group members from the undue influence of others. Basically, the types of problems sorted by this technique are not specific in nature or related to a particular situation at a given time. For example, the technique could be used to explain the problems that could be created in the event of a war. The Delphi technique includes the following steps −
Organizational Behavior - LeadershipLeadership can be defined as the ability of the management to make sound decisions and inspire others to perform well. It is the process of directing the behavior of others towards achieving a common goal. In short, leadership is getting things done through others. Importance of LeadershipLeadership is very important in a firm as it leads to higher performance by the team members, it improves motivation and morale within the members, and helps to respond to change. Leadership facilitates organizational success by creating responsibility and accountability among the members of the organization. In short, it increases value in an organization. Leader Vs ManagerA leader is someone whom people follow or someone who guides or directs others. A manager is someone who is responsible for directing and controlling the work and staff in an organization, or of a department within it. The main difference between the two is that a leader works by example, while a manager dictates expectations. If a manager goes against the rules, that will tarnish his position as a manager. If a leader goes against the example he or she is trying to set, that will be seen as a setback. Following are a few subtle differences between the two −
Leadership StylesDifferent leadership styles exist in work environments. The culture and goal of an organization determine which leadership style fits best. Some organizations offer different leadership styles within an organization, depending on the necessary tasks to complete and departmental needs. We find five different leadership styles in the corporate world. They are as follows − Laissez-FaireA laissez-faire leader does not directly supervise employees and fails to provide regular updates to those under his supervision. Highly experienced and trained employees with minimal requirement of supervision fall under the laissez-faire leadership style. But, not all employees possess these features. This leadership style blocks the production of employees needing supervision. The laissez-faire style implements no leadership or supervision efforts from managers, which can lead to poor production, lack of control and increasing costs. AutocraticThe autocratic leadership style permits managers to make decisions alone without the input of others. Managers access total authority and impose their will on employees. No one opposes the decisions of autocratic leaders. Countries like Cuba and North Korea operate under the autocratic leadership style. This leadership style benefits those who require direct supervision. Creative employees who participate in group functions detest this leadership style. ParticipativeThis is also known as the democratic leadership style. It values the input of team members and peers, but the responsibility of making the final decision rests with the participative leader. Participative leadership motivates employee morale because employees make contributions to the decision-making process. It accounts to a feeling that their opinions matter. When an organization needs to make changes within itself, that is internally, the participative leadership style helps employees accept changes easily as they play a role in the process. This leadership style meets challenges when companies need to make a decision in a short period of time. TransactionalTransactional leadership style is formed by the concept of reward and punishment. Transactional leaders believe that the employee's performance is completely dependent on these two factors. When there is an encouragement, the workers put in their best effort and the bonus is in monetary terms in most of the cases. In case they fail to achieve the set target they are given a negative appraisal. Transactional leaders pay more attention to physical and security requirements of the employees. TransformationalTransformational leadership has the ability to affect employee's perceptions through the returns that organization gets in the form of human capital benefits. These leaders have the ability to reap higher benefits by introducing knowledge management processes, encouraging interpersonal communication among employees and creating healthy organizational culture. It helps in flourishing organizational innovation by creating a participative environment or culture. It promotes a culture where the employees have autonomy to speak about their experiences and share knowledge. It has been seen that transformational leaders are more innovative than transactional and laisse-faire leaders. Traditional TheoryTraditional theory is a theory based on different traits of a human beings. It assumes that leaders are born and not made. According to this theory, leadership behavior is the sum total of all traits that a leader possess. Thus this theory gives the profile of a successful and complete leader. According to this theory, there are five human traits. They are −
DrawbacksFollowing are the major drawbacks of this theory −
Theories of LeadershipBehavioral TheoryThis theory explains the effectiveness of leadership. According to this theory, leadership has two qualities i.e., initiating structure and consideration. These qualities are tested with higher and lower levels with proper intersection of each other. Initiating StructureIt is the level up to which a leader is task oriented and directs the employee towards achieving a goal. In this case, the leader gives instruction, makes plan and schedules work activities. ConsiderationIt is the level up to which a leader is concerned with the sub-ordinates, ideas and feelings. Considerate leaders are friendly, they show concern for sub-ordinates’ well-being and satisfaction. This type of leadership is achieved by performance and is found to be effective. But it is not the best way as situational factors are not taken into consideration. Contingency TheoryAccording to this theory, propounded by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard, believes the effectiveness of a leader is dependent on the action or readiness of his followers. By readiness we mean the extent to which the followers are able and willing to achieve the goal. This theory is explained on the basis of four cases.
Conflict ManagementConflict can be defined as a mental struggle resulting from incompatible or opposing needs, drives, wishes, and external or internal demands. Where there are people, there is conflict. They are usually taken in a negative association. However, this is inaccurate as conflicts are necessary for healthy relationships. It all depends on the approach we use to resolve the conflict. Classification of ConflictWhen we think of the different types of conflict, we might instantly think of the ones referred to in literature, especially in fiction. They can be applied to real life, of course. However, in contemporary times, types of conflict which are easily identifiable are classified into four different types −
Intrapersonal ConflictIntrapersonal conflict takes place within an individual. The person experiences it in his own mind. Thus, it is a type of conflict that is psychological involving the individual’s thoughts, values, principles and emotions. Intrapersonal conflict may come in different forms, from the simple mundane ones like deciding whether or not to go vegan for lunch to ones that can affect major decisions such as choosing a career path. However, this type of conflict can be quite difficult to handle, if you find it hard to decipher your inner struggles. It results in restlessness and uneasiness, or can even cause depression. On such occasions, it is advised to seek a way to let go of the anxiety by communicating with other people. Eventually, when the person finds himself/herself out of the situation, he/she can become more empowered as a person. Thus, the experience invokes a positive change which helps in personal growth. Intragroup ConflictIntragroup conflict occurs among individuals within a team. The incompatibilities and misunderstandings between team members leads to intragroup conflict. It starts from interpersonal disagreements like team members have different personalities which may lead to tension or differences in views and ideas. Say for example, during a presentation, members of the team might find the notions presented by the one presiding to be erroneous due to their differences in opinion. Within a team, conflict can be helpful in coming up with decisions, which will eventually allow them to achieve their objectives as a team. But, if the degree of conflict disrupts harmony among the members, then some serious guidance from a different party will be needed for it to be settled. Interpersonal ConflictInterpersonal conflict means a conflict between two individuals. Basically, this occurs because of some differences in people. We have varied personalities which usually lead to incompatible choices and opinions. So, it is a natural occurrence which can eventually help in personal growth or developing our relationships with others. In addition, adjustments are necessary for managing this type of conflict. However, when interpersonal conflict becomes too destructive, calling in a mediator helps so as to have the issue resolved. Intergroup ConflictIntergroup conflict occurs when a misunderstanding arises among different teams within an organization. For example, the marketing department of an organization can come in conflict with the customer support department. This is because of the varied sets of goals and interests of these different groups. In addition to this, competition also contributes to intergroup conflict. There are other factors which increase this type of conflict. Some of these factors may include a rivalry in resources or the boundaries set by a group to others which forms their own identity as a team. Conflict should not always be perceived as a problem rather at times it is a chance for growth and can be an effective means of opening up among groups or individuals. However, when conflict begins to suppress or disrupt productivity and gives way to more conflicts, then conflict management is what is needed for problem resolution. Conflict ResolutionConflict resolution is a method by which two or more parties find a peaceful solution to a disagreement among them. The disagreement can be personal, financial, political, or emotional. When a disagreement arises, often the best course of action is negotiation to resolve the disagreement. We all know that when people gather for a discussion, it is not necessary that what one thinks is right the other thinks the same way, this difference in thinking or mentality leads to conflict. "I’m doing my best at work and you expect me to do more! Why don’t you ask the other team members?" This is the start of a conflict! Let us know about some of the conflict management techniques. Conflict Management TechniquesWe get into a conflict when the person opposite to us has a different mindset. It is very common in a workplace to get into differences of opinion. Sometimes there is a conflict between two or more employees, sometimes employees have a conflict with their managers and so on. Now the question is, how can we manage disagreements in ways that build personal and collegial relationships? Here are five strategies from conflict management theory for managing stressful situations. None of them is a "one-size-fits-all" answer. Which one is the best in a given situation depends on variety of factors, including an appraisal of the levels of conflict.
CollaboratingThis technique follows the rule "I win, you win". Collaborating means working together by integrating ideas set out by multiple people. The objective here is to find a creative solution acceptable to everyone. It calls for a significant time commitment but is not appropriate for all conflicts. This technique is used in situations where −
However, this process takes a lot of time and energy and some may take advantage of other people's trust and openness. Example − A businessman should work collaboratively with the manager to establish policies, but collaborative decision-making regarding office supplies wastes time better spent on other activities. CompromisingThis technique follows the rule "You bend, I bend". Compromising means adjusting with each other’s opinions and ideas, and thinking of a solution where some points of both the parties can be entertained. Similarly, both the parties need to give up on some of their ideas and should agree with the other. This technique can be used in situations where −
Important values and long-term objectives can be derailed using this technique. This process may not work if initial demands are high and mainly if there's no commitment to honor the compromise solutions. Example − Two friends had a fight and they decide to compromise with each other through mutual understanding. AccommodatingThis technique follows the rule "I lose, you win". Accommodating means giving up of ideas and thoughts so that the other party wins and the conflict ends. This technique can be used when −
However, using this technique, one's own ideas don't get attention and credibility, and influence can be lost. Example − When we fight with someone we love we choose to let them win. CompetingThis technique follows the rule "I win, you lose". Competing means when there is a dispute a person or a group is not willing to collaborate or adjust but it simply wants the opposite party to lose. This technique can be used when −
This technique can further escalate conflict or losers may retaliate. Example − When in a debate the party with more facts wins. AvoidingThis technique follows the rule "No winners, no losers". Avoiding means the ideas suggested by both the parties are rejected and a third person is involved who takes a decision without favoring any of the parties. This technique can be used when −
Using this technique may lead to postponing the conflict, that may make matters worse. Example − Rahul and Rohit had a fight, their mother came and punished both of them. Organizational Behavior - CultureOrganizational culture can be defined as the group norms, values, beliefs and assumptions practiced in an organization. It brings stability and control within the firm. The organization is more stable and its objective can be understood more clearly. Organizational culture helps the group members to resolve their differences, overcome the barriers and also helps them in tackling risks. Elements of Organizational CultureThe two key elements seen in organizational culture are −
Different Types of Organizational CultureThe culture a firm follows can be further classified into different types. They are −
Mechanistic and Organic CultureMechanistic culture is formed by formal rule and standard operating procedures. Everything needs to be defined clearly to the employees like their task, responsibility and concerned authorities. Communication process is carried according to the direction given by the organization. Accountability is one of the key factors of mechanistic culture. Organic culture is defined as the essence of social values in an organization. Thus there exists a high degree of sociability with very few formal rules and regulations in the company. It has a systematic hierarchy of authority that leads towards free flow of communication. Some key elements of organic culture include authority, responsibility, accountability and direct flow towards the employee. Authoritarian and Participative CultureAuthoritarian culture means power of one. In this culture, power remains with the top level management. All the decisions are made by the top management with no employee involvement in the decision making as well as goal shaping process. The authority demands obedience from the employee and warns them for punishment in case of mistake or irregularity. This type of culture is followed by military organization. In participative culture, employees actively participate in the decision making and goal shaping process. As the name suggests, it believes in collaborative decision making. In this type of culture, employees are perfectionist, active and professional. Along with group decision making, group problem solving process is also seen here. Subculture and Dominant CultureIn subculture, some members of the organization make and follow a culture but not all members. It is a part of organizational culture, thus we can see many subcultures in an organization. Every department in a company have their own culture that gets converted to a subculture. So, the strength and adaptability of an organizational culture is dependent on the success of subculture. In dominant culture, majority of subculture combine to become a dominant culture. The success of dominant culture is dependent on the homogeneity of the subculture, that is, the mixture of different cultures. At the same point of time, some cold war between a dominant culture and a minor culture can also be seen. Strong and Weak CultureIn a strong culture, the employees are loyal and have a feeling of belongingness towards the organization. They are proud of their company as well as of the work they do and they slave towards their goal with proper coordination and control. Perception and commitment are two aspects that are seen within the employees. In this culture, there is less employee turnover and high productivity. In a weak culture, the employees hardly praise their organization. There is no loyalty towards the company. Thus, employee dissatisfaction and high labor turnover are two aspects of this culture. Entrepreneurial and Market CultureEntrepreneurial culture is a flexible and risk-taking culture. Here the employees show their innovativeness in thinking and are experimental in practice. Individual initiations make the goal easy to achieve. Employees are given freedom in their activity. The organization rewards the employees for better performance. Market culture is based on achievement of goal. It is a highly target-oriented and completely profit-oriented culture. Here the relationship between the employees and the organization is to achieve the goal. The social relation among the workers is not motivating. How to Create an Organizational CultureAn organizational culture is created with the combination of certain criteria that are mentioned below −
The culture of an organizational can change due to composition of workforce, merger and acquisition, planned organizational change, and influence of other organizational culture. Organizational Behavior - ChangeOrganizational change can be defined as the alteration in structure, technology or people in an organization or behavior by an organization. Here we need to note that change in organizational culture is different from change in an organization. A new method or style or new rule is implemented here. An organizational change occurs due to two major factors namely −
Kurt Lewin’s Force Field AnalysisKurt Lewin, is a noted organizational theorist, who proposed the force field analysis for organizational change. In this theory, he has prioritized two factors for change in an organization, namely −
Importance of Organizational ChangeThere is a need of change in an organization because there is always a hope for further development, and in order to survive in a competitive market, the organization needs to be updated with changes. However, we have listed some reasons to explain why changes are deliberately made and carefully planned by the organization before implementation.
Planned ChangeWe can define planned change as any kind of alteration or modification which is done in advance and differently for improvement. The Need for Planned ChangePlanned change takes places in an organization when there is a demand for change due to two types of forces. These forces are grouped into internal sources and external sources. Internal forces that lead to a planned change in an organization include obsolescence of production and service, new market opportunities, new strategic direction, increasing workforce diversity, and shift in socio-cultural values. External forces that lead to a planned change in an organization include regulators, competitors, market force, customers, and technology. Each of these forces can create pressing demand for change in small or big, public or private, business or non-business organizations. Process of Planned ChangeOnce the management decides to implement some changes in the organization, it needs to be done carefully as it is a very sensitive issue. It is very important for all the employees to adapt to change. According to Kurt Lewin, the planned organizational change is implemented in three different stages. They are −
Types of Planned ChangeOn the basis of a company’s requirement planned change is classified into three types. They are −
Change in StructureWe say that the planned change required is change in structure when development is required in these following areas −
Change in TechnologyWe say that the planned change required is change in technology when development is required in these following areas −
Change in PeopleWe say that the planned change required is change in people when development is required in these following areas −
Organizational Behavior - DevelopmentOrganizational Development is a field of research, theory, as well as practice devoted to expanding the knowledge and effectiveness of how people accomplish successful organizational change and performance. Organizational development is not an overnight transformation that can be done in an organization, rather it is a gradual process that has to be executed systematically and by taking care of the external environment. Organization Development TechniquesCompanies adopt organizational development technique to modify the behavior of people who are resisting change. It is a program to bring a change in the values, norms, attitudes, perception, and behavior of people and improve the quality of inter-personal relations. Some of the major organizational development techniques are −
Now let us have a look at all these techniques. Sensitivity TechniqueHere sensitivity refers to the psychological aspect of human mind that has to be shaped to act as expected by the group. In this technique, one’s own weakness is exposed and members understand how others react towards them. Stress is on group dynamics and tackling inter-relationship disputes. The idea is to improve the behavior of people in order to maintain smooth inter-personal relationship without any power or influence. Members are motivated to have an open, heart-to-heart talk to develop mature relationship. Sensitivity training borders on psychotherapy where the emotions as well as body language are considered. Survey FeedbackIn this technique, the discrepancies among a group are weeded out using questionnaires, which identify the difference in perception amongst the same working family, group or department. The collected data is then tabulated and distributed for further deliberations. This acts as the basis for further discussions and the discrepancies if any can be sorted out by open discussions with all concerned, defending and opposing till a consensus is reached. This technique mainly focuses on ideas and not on persons who put up those ideas. Process ConsultationIn this technique, a firm may either seek the support of experts from within the firm or from outside. The firm must check that process consultation is done through an external expert with the needed support provided by the authorities from within the organization. Team BuildingIn this technique, attempts are made at the group or inter-group level. The main objective is to improve co-ordination thereby improving the performance as a group. This can be done by goal setting, development of inter-personal relations, role analysis to identify roles and responsibilities and team process analysis. Intergroup DevelopmentInter group development technique attempts to change the perceptions of groups about themselves or about other groups. This can be done by organizing independent group meeting, developing a list consisting of perception of itself, views about other departments and how others view them, trying to understand and resolve the actual cause of conflicts, or sub grouping the groups to remove difference in perceptions and impressions that groups have about each other. Why is it important for managers to understand human behaviour?The Importance of Studying Human Behavior
Managers needed to understand how their employees' satisfaction levels and senses of loyalty could affect their work ethics — and therefore overall productivity.
What is your understanding of human behavior in organization?Human Behaviour in Organisations is concerned with the application of organisational behavioural principles, research methods and intervention strategies to practical problems of organisations and employees and workgroups around the world.
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