What are Primary Sources?A primary source is a first hand testimony, document, speech or other evidence that gives insight into a particular person or an event. They are often created during the time period which is being studied but can also be produced later by eyewitnesses or participants. Show
Secondary sources analyze, review, or summarize information in primary resources or other secondary resources. Even sources presenting facts or descriptions about events are secondary unless they are based on direct participation or observation. Moreover, secondary sources often rely on other secondary sources and standard disciplinary methods to reach results, and they provide the principle sources of analysis about primary sources. Tertiary sources provide overviews of topics by synthesizing information gathered from other resources. Tertiary resources often provide data in a convenient form or provide information with context by which to interpret it. The distinctions between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources can be ambiguous. An individual document may be a primary source in one context and a secondary source in another. Encyclopedias are typically considered tertiary sources, but a study of how encyclopedias have changed on the Internet would use them as primary sources. Time is a defining element. While these definitions are clear, the lines begin to blur in the different discipline areas. See box below for examples. (Adapted from: VirginaTech Library under CCBY 4.0) Find out what secondary data is – as opposed to primary data – and how to go about collecting and using it. What is secondary data & archival material?Primary & secondary dataAll research will involve the collection of data. Much of this data will be collected directly through some form of interaction between the researcher and the people or organisation concerned, using such methods as interviews, focus groups, surveys and participant observation. Such methods involve the collection of primary data, and herein lies the opportunity for the researcher to develop and demonstrate the greatest skill. However sometimes the researcher will use data which has already been collected for other purposes – in other words, he or she is going to an existing source rather than directly interacting with people. The data may have been:
Either way, such material is termed secondary data. Rather confusingly, the latter form of secondary data is also referred to as primary source material.
This distinguishes them from secondary sources which describe, analyse and refer to the primary sources. The above definitions and distinctions can be described diagrammatically as follows: Types of secondary dataSecondary data is found in print or electronic form, if the latter, on CD-ROM, as an online computer database, or on the Internet. Furthermore, it can be in the form of statistics collected by governments, trade associations, organisations that exist to collect and sell statistical data, or just as plain documents in archives or company records. A crucial distinction is whether or not the data has been interpreted, or whether it exists in raw form.
Because interpreted data will have been collected deliberately, the plan behind its collection and interpretation will also have been deliberate – that is, it will have been subjected to a particular research design. By contrast, raw data will not have been processed, and will exist in its original form. (See "Using archival data" section in this guide.) When and why to use secondary dataThere are various reasons for using secondary data:
You should pay particular attention to the place of secondary documents within your research design. How prominent a role you give to this method may depend on your subject: for example, if you are researching in the area of accounting, finance or business history, secondary documentary sources are likely to play an important part. Otherwise, use of secondary data is likely to play a complementary part in your research design. For example, if you are studying a particular organisation, you would probably want to supplement observation/interviews with a look at particular documents produced by that organisation. ExampleIn "Learning lessons? The registration of lobbyists at the Scottish parliament" (Journal of Communication Management, Vol. 10 No. 1), the author uses archival research at the Scottish parliament as a supplementary research method (along with the media and focus groups), his main method being interviews and participant observation of meetings. This point is further developed in the "Secondary data as part of the research design" section of this guide. Reasons for using the different types of secondary data are further developed in the individual sections. NB If you are doing a research project/dissertation/thesis, check your organisation's view of secondary data. Some organisations may require you to use primary data as your principle research method. Advantages and disadvantages of secondary data collectionThe advantages of using secondary data are:
The disadvantages of secondary data collection are:
Using published data setsWhat are they?As discussed in the previous section, these are sources of data which have already been collected and worked on by someone else, according to a particular research design. Other points to note are:
Key considerationsThere are a number of points to consider when using data sets, some practical and others associated with the research design (yours and theirs). Practical considerations relate to cost and use:
Research considerations include:
And finally...
SourcesProducers of published secondary data include:
Where to find such information? The key is to have a very clear idea of what it is you are trying to find: what particular aspects of the research question are you attempting to answer? You may well find sources listed in your literature review, or your tutor may point you in certain directions, but at some point you will need to consult the tertiary literature, which will point you in the direction of archives, indexes, catalogues and gateways. Your library will probably have Subject Guides covering your areas of interest. The following is a very basic list:
Using archival dataWhat are they?Archival, or documentary secondary data, are documentary records left by people as a by product of their eveyday activity. They may be formally deposited in an archive or they may just exist as company records. Historians make considerable use of archival material as a key research technique, using a wide range of personal documents such as letters, diaries, household bills, which are often stored in some sort of formal "archive". Business researchers talk about "archival research" because they use many of the same techniques for recording and analysing information. Companies, by their very nature, tend to create records, both officially in the form of annual reports, declarations of share value etc., and unofficially in the e-mails, letters, meeting minutes and agendas, sales data, employee records etc. which are the by-product of their daily activities. If you are studying a business and management related subject, you may make use of archival material for a number of reasons:
ExamplesIn "Financial reporting and local government reform – a (mis)match?" (Qualitative Research in Accounting & Management, Vol. 2 No. 2), Robyn Pilcher uses archival research – "Data was obtained from annual reports provided electronically to the DLG and checked against hard copies of these reports and supporting notes" – and interviews as exploratory research to investigate use of flawed financial figures by political parties, before carrying out a detailed examination of a few councils. "Coalport Bridge Tollhouse, 1793-1995" (Structural Survey, Vol. 14 No. 4) is a historical study of this building drawing on such documents as maps, plans, photos, account books, meeting minutes, legal opinions and census records. As distinct from published data sets, you will have to record and process the data yourself, in order to create your own data set. Sometimes this archival material will be stored in "official" archives, such as the UK Public Record Office. Mostly however, it will be company specific, stored in official company archives or perhaps in smaller collections in individual departments or business units. Records can exist in physical or electronic form – the latter commonly on the company intranet. ExampleWhatever the company's archiving policy, there is no doubt that businesses provide a rich source of data. Here is a (non exhaustive) list of the forms that data can take:
Management Information Systems can hold a considerable amount of data. For example, the following HR records may be held:
Source: Peter Kingsbury (1997), IT Answers to HR Questions, CIPD. The media (newspapers, magazines, advertisements, television and radio programmes, books, the Internet) can also throw valuable light on events, and media sources should not be ignored. Key considerationsThere are a number of points to consider when using archival material:
ExampleIn "Participatory group observation – a tool to analyse strategic decision-making" (Qualitative Market Research, Vol. 5 No. 1), Christine Vallaster and Oliver Koll highlight the benefit of multiple methods for studying complex issues, it being thus possible to supplement the weaknesses of one method with the strengths of another and study a phenomenon from a diversity of views, and achieve a high degree of validity. In the case in question, archival research was used to analyse documents (organisation charts, company reports, memos, meeting minutes), and whilst the limitations in terms of incompleteness, selectivity, and not being authored by interviewees were acknowledged, so was their supporting value to interviews, and the same textual analysis method was used for both methods. Secondary data as part of the research designWe have already mentioned, as part of our discussion of the two main types of secondary data, some considerations in respect to how they are used as part of the research. In this section, we shall look more generally at how secondary data can fit in to the overall research design. Theoretical frameworkResearchers take different views of the facts they are researching. For some, facts exist as independent reality; others admit the possibility of interpretation by the actors concerned. The two views, and their implication for the documents and data concerned, can be summed up as follows:
Some examples would be:
Reliability and validityReliability and validity is important to any research design, and an important consideration with secondary data is the extent to which it relates to the research question, in other words how reliably it can answer it. You need to consider the fit very carefully before deciding to proceed. Some questions which may help here are: How reliable is the data?In the case of published data, you will be able to make a judgement by looking at its provenance: does it come from the government, or from a reputable commercial source? The same applies to the Internet – what is the source? Look for publisher information and copyright statements. How up to date is the material? You also need to make intrinsic judgements, however: what is the methodology behind the survey, and how robust is it? How large was the sample and what was the response rate? There are fewer obvious external measures you can use to check unpublished, archival material: that from businesses can be notoriously inconsistent and inaccurate. Records can be incomplete with some documents missing; sometimes, whole archives can disappear when companies are taken over. In addition, some documents such as letters, reports, e-mails, meeting minutes etc. have a subjective element, reflecting the view of the author, or the perceived wishes of the recipient. For example, meeting minutes may not reflect a controversial discussion that took place but only the agreed action points; a report on sales may be intended to put a positive spin on a situation and disguise its real seriousness. It helps when assessing reliability to consider who the intended audience is. If you are using media reports, be aware that these may only include what they consider to be the most pertinent points. Measurement validityOne of the biggest problems with secondary data is to do with the measurements involved. These may just not be the same as the ones you want (e.g. sales given in revenue rather than quantity), they may deliberately be distorted (e.g. non recording of minor accidents, sick leave etc.), or they may be different for different countries. If the measures are inexact, you need to take a view as to how serious the problem is and how you can address it. CoverageDoes the data cover the time frame, geographical area, and variable in which you are interested? For example, if you are studying a particular period in a company, do you have meeting minutes to cover that period, or do they stop/start at a time within the boundaries of that period? Do you have the sales figures for all the countries your are interested in, and all the product types? You can greatly increase the validity and reliability of your use of secondary data if you triangulate with another research method. For example if you are seeking insights into a period of change within a company, you can use documentary records to compare with interviews with key informants. Examples"Leading beyond tragedy: the balance of personal identity and adaptability" (Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 26 No. 6) is a case study of the Norwegian company Wilhelmson's Lines loss of key employees in a plane crash, and uses archival research along with on-site interviews and participant observation as the tools of case study analysis. "The human resource management practice of retail branding: an ethnography within Oxfam Trading Division" (International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Vol. 33 No. 7) uses an ethnographic approach and includes scanning the company intranet along with participant observation and interviews. Quantitative or qualitative?Documentary data can be used as part of a qualitative or quantitative research design. Much data, whether from company archives or from published data sets, is statistical, and can therefore be used as part of a quantitative design, for example how many sales were made of a particular item, what were reasons for absenteeism, company profitability etc. One way of using secondary data in quantitative research is to compare it with data you have collected yourself, probably by a survey. For example, you can compare your own survey data with that from a census or other published survey, which will inevitably have a much larger sample, thereby helping you generalise, and/or triangulate, your findings. Textual data can also be used qualitatively, for example marketing literature can be used to as backup information on marketing campaigns, and e-mails, letters, meeting minutes etc. can throw additional light on management decisions. Content analysis is often quoted as a method of analysis: this involves analysing occurrence of key concepts and ideas and either draw statistical inferences or carry out a qualitative assessment, looking at the main themes that emerge. Gaining access to, and using, archivesArchives may be found in national collections, such as the UK's Public Record Office, or as smaller collections associated with national, local or federal government organisations, academic libraries, professional or trade associations, or charities; they may also be found in companies. The latter are generally closely controlled; the former are most likely to be publically available. This page gives a brief overview of how to gain access to archival collections, and what you can expect when you get there. PreparationAn archival collection, even an open one, is not like a library where you can just turn up. You need to establish opening hours, and then make arrangements to visit. It is best to write ahead explaining:
In order to be clear about point 2, you will need to know not only the precise scope of your research but also how this particular collection can help you. You will therefore need to spend time researching (perhaps more than one) collection, so make sure that this is allowed for in your research plan. You also need to understand the key difference between libraries and archives:
Locating sourcesBibliographic databases are good sources for finding archival collections: you can search by subject, keyword, personal or geographical name. Whilst not containing records of each item, catalogue records of archival collections are generally lengthier than for published materials and may include a summary of materials contained in the collection. More detailed information about the collection, usually at the level of the box or folder, is found in Finding Aids. You can find suitable databases through your library's Subject Guides. Gaining access to commercial collectionsAs indicated above, commercial archival or document collections are more tightly controlled than public ones, access to which will depend upon a clearly stated request and proof of identity. Commercial sources, by contrast, may require more negotiation, and more convincing, because of the perceived sensitivity of their material and the fact that they exist for their customers and shareholders, and not as an archival collection. Companies understandably count the opportunity cost of time spent "helping a researcher with their enquiries", not to mentioning opening up possibly sensitive documents to the prying eyes of an outsider. This can cause problems to the researcher because if the research project is based on one or a few companies, if access is denied then the overall validity of the research will be prejudiced. Given the likelihood that other research methods, such as interview, survey etc. are also being used, it is best to approach access in the widest sense, and stress the benefits to the organisation, the credibility of the researcher, and assurance of confidentiality. Which method of data collection is most commonly used by scientists?Interviewing constitutes probably the most common and popular qualitative data collection technique. It normally involves a 'dialogue' with the researcher setting the agenda and asking questions and the interviewee being cast in the role of respondent.
Which of the following is an example of gathering primary data?Surveys and questionnaires are 2 similar tools used in collecting primary data.
Which group of scholars might remark on the quality of the facilities or speculate about the home that these people live in?Family ecologists might remark on the quality of the facilities-or speculate about the family's home and neighborhood-and how this affects family health and relations.
What factor may cause a father to make choices about his family by sliding into a decision quizlet?What factor may cause a father to make choices about his family by "sliding" into a decision? Strong day-to-day pressures on the job cutting into time at home.
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