Changes over time in how people think, how they solve problems, and how their capacities for memory and attention change Show Influential swiss developmental psychologist, best known for his theories of cognitive and moral development A period in which abilities are organized in a coherent, interrelated way The organization of cognitive abilities into a single pattern, such that thinking in all aspects of life is a reflection of that structure Mental structure A person who thinks within a particular stage in one aspect of life should think within that stage in all other aspects of life as well because all thinking is part of the same mental structure Approach to understanding cognition that emphasizes the changes that take place at different stages Cognitive-developmental approach Process by which abilities develop through genetically based development with limited influence from the environment How did Piaget's emphasis on the importance of maturation contrast with the views of other theorists? Other theorists believed that there were no inherent limits to development or that environmental stimulation could override them. Piaget portrayed maturation as an active process in which children seek out information and stimulation in the environment that matches the maturity of their thinking, which contrasted with the views of other theorists such as behaviorists, who saw the environment as acting on the child through rewards and punishments rather than seeing the child as an active agent According to Piaget's theory, a mental structure for organizing and interpreting information The cognitive process that occurs when new information is altered to fit an existing's scheme Assimilation Example: reading information in a text book that is familiar to you The cognitive process that occurs when a scheme is changed to adapt to new information Accommodation Example: learning about adolescent development in other cultures in a textbook that does not fit with your current ideas about that culture What are Piaget's four stages of cognitive development? Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations According to Piaget, the cognitive stage in the first two years of life that involves learning how to coordinate the activities of the senses with motor activities According to Piaget, cognitive stage from ages 2 to 7 during which the child becomes capable of representing the world symbolically – for example, through the use of language – but is still very limited in ability to use mental operations According to Piaget, cognitive stage from age 7 to 11 in which children learn to use mental operations but are limited to applying them to concrete, observable situations rather than hypothetical situations cognitive activity involving manipulating and reasoning about objects According to Piaget, cognitive stage from 11 on up in which people learn to think systematically about possibilities and hypotheses Piaget's classic test of formal operations, in which persons are asked to figure out what determines the speed at which a pendulum swings from side to side Piaget's term for the process by which the formal operational thinker systematically tests possible solutions to a problem and arrives at an answer that can be defended and explained Hypothetical-deductive reasoning Thinking in terms of symbols, ideas, and concepts Thinking that takes into account multiple connections and interpretations, such as in the use of metaphor, satire, and sarcasm The capacity for "thinking about thinking" that allows adolescents and adults to reason about their thought processes and monitor them Approach to research that focusses on how individuals differ within a group, for example, in performance on IQ tests What are the two limitations of Piaget's theory of formal operations? Individual differences in the attainment of formal operations The cultural basis of adolescent cognitive development Describe the limitation of Piaget's theory: individual differences in formal operations Piaget's theory puts a strong emphasis on maturation, and asserted that most people proceed through the same stages at about the same ages because they experience the same maturational processes. Research indicates that these claims were inaccurate, especially for formal operations: Describe the limitation of Piaget's theory: culture and formal operations In the 1970s, numerous studies indicated that cultures vary widely in the prevalence with which their members displayed an understanding of formal operations on the kind of tasks that Piaget and others had used to measure it – scholars believed that in many cultures formal operational thought does not develop, especially those cultures that did not have formal schooling Piaget responded – suggested that even though all persons reach the potential for formal operational thinking, they apply it to areas in which their culture has provided them with the most experience and expertise. If you use materials and tasks familiar to the people in different cultures and relevant to their daily lives, they will likely display formal operational thinking under those conditions Now there is widespread support among scholars for the proposition that the stage of formal operations constitutes a universal human potential, but the forms it takes in each culture are derived from the kinds of cognitive requirements people in the culture face Type of thinking beyond formal operations, involving greater awareness of the complexity of real life situations, such as in the use of pragmatism and reflective judgement Postformal thinking Piaget believed that cognitive maturation was complete once formal operations was fully attained at age 20. However, research indicates that cognitive development often continues in important ways during emerging adulthood, inspiring theories of cognitive development beyond formal operations- postformal thinking Two of the most notable aspects of postformal thinking in emerging adulthood concern advances in: Pragmatism and reflective judgement Type of thinking that involves adapting logical thinking to the practical constraints of real-life situations Pragmatism These theories propose that the problems faced in normal adult life often contain complexities and inconsistencies that cannot be addressed with the logic of formal operations Describe how formal operational thought can be found among in Inuit adolescents Until recent decades, Inuit children and adolescents had never attended school, if they had tried to perform the tasks of formal operations, they probably would have done poorly However, adolescent boys would have used formal operations when hunting by themselves. They would have used hypothetical-deductive reasoning to figure out why their hunt was unsuccessful on a particular outing Adolescent girls who had to tan hides by themselves at the age of 14, may have ruined a hide and had to ask where in the process did she go wrong, working her way back through the various steps in the process, trying to identify her error – this is also a formal operational thinking, considering various hypotheses in order to identify a promising one to test Type of thinking that develops in emerging adulthood, involving a growing awareness that most problems do not have a single solution and that problems must often be addressed with crucial pieces of information missing Dialectical thought A theory presented by Michael Basseches Some cultures may promote dialectical thinking more than others – for example, it has been proposed that Chinese culture traditionally promotes dialectical thought by advocating an approach to knowledge that strives to reconcile contradictions and combine opposing perspectives by seeking a middle ground. In contrast, the European American approach tends to apply logic in a way that polarizes contradictory perspectives in an effort to determine which is correct The capacity to evaluate the accuracy and logical coherence of evidence and arguments Reflective judgement A cognitive quality that has been found to develop in emerging adulthood. One influential theory of reflective judgement in emerging adulthood is proposed by William Perry. Cognitive tendency to see situations and issues in polarized, absolute, black-and-white terms Cognitive approach entailing recognition that there is more than one legitimate view of things and that it can be difficult to justify one position as the true or accurate one Cognitive ability to recognize the legitimacy of competing points of view but also compare the relative merits of competing views Cognitive status in which persons commit themselves to certain points of view they believe to be the most valid while at the same time being open to reevaluating their views if new evidence is presented to them Describe William Perry's theory of the development of reflective judgement in emerging adulthood according to his studies of college students in their late teens and early 20s Adolescents and first year college students tend to engage in dualistic thinking – situations and issues are in polarized terms – they lack reflective judgement Reflective judgement begins to develop for most people in their late teens: By the early 20s, multiple thinking develops into relativism – able to recognize the legitimacy of competing points of view and attempt to compare the merits of each of view. By the end of the college years, many emerging adults reached a stage of commitment where they commit themselves to certain points of view they believe to be the most valid and also open to reevaluate if new evidence is presented. An approach to understanding cognition that seeks to delineate the steps involved in the thinking process and how each step is connected to the next Information-processing approach Views
cognitive development as continuous, or gradual and steady, in comparison to Piaget's theory which saw cognitive development as discontinuous and separated into distinct stages. A view of development as taking place in stages that are distinct from one another rather than as one gradual, continuous process Discontinuous Example: Piaget's theory of cognitive development A view of development as a gradual, steady process rather than as taking place in distinct stages Continuous Example: the information-processing approach Description of the information-processing approach to cognition, indicating that it involves breaking down the thinking process into its various components The ability to focus on relevant information while screening out information that is irrelevant Selective attention One aspect of selective attention is the ability to analyze a set of information and select the most important parts of it for further attention and – you may monitor information presented in class according to your judgement of the information's importance. Also a key part of problem-solving – must decide first where to direct your attention The ability to focus on more than one task at a time Divided attention Example: reading a book and listening to music at the same time. Adolescents are more adept than preadolescents at these kind of tasks. But divided attention may result in less efficient learning than if attention were focussed entirely on one thing Memory for information that is the current focus of attention Short-term memory Has a limited capacity and retains information for only a short time, usually about 30 seconds or less Memory for information that is committed to longer-term storage, so that it can be drawn upon after a period when attention has not been focussed on it Long-term memory The capacity is unlimited, and information is retained in definitely Both short-term and long-term memory improves substantially between childhood and adolescence An aspect of short term memory that refers to where information is stored as it is comprehended and analyzed Working memory A mental workbench where you keep information as you are working on it. It is where you analyze and reason about information in the course of decision
making, solving problems, and comprehending written and spoken language. The information may be new, or it may be called up from long-term memory, or some combination of the two Describe how long term memory improves in adolescence Adolescents are more likely to use mnemonic devices, such as organizing information into coherent patterns. Adolescents have more experience and more knowledge than children do, and these advantages enhance the effectiveness of long-term memory. Having more knowledge helps you learn new information and stored in long-term memory What are three aspects of information processing that advance in adolescence? Speed, automaticity, and executive functioning Degree of cognitive effort a person needs to devote to processing a given set of information Automaticity Adolescents show greater automaticity of processing in a variety of respects, compared with Preadolescent children. Automaticity depends more on experience then on age alone – for example in chess players. The ability to control and manage cognitive processes. Allows you to combine cognitive abilities such as attention, memory, planning, and reasoning into coherent thoughts and actions Executive functioning More advanced in adolescents than in young children – for example, driving an automobile or working as a clerk in a retail store Breaking up a phenomenon into separate parts to such an extent that the meaning and coherence of the phenomenon as a whole becomes lost Reductionism A limitation of the information-processing approach according to critics What are two limitations of the information-processing approach according to critics? 1. Information-processing is guilty of reductionism, Breaking up a phenomenon into separate parts to such an extent that the meaning and coherence of the phenomenon as a whole becomes lost – this approach loses the holistic perspective that characterized Piaget's work and fails to consider how human cognition works as a whole rather than a set of isolated parts. Argue that humans are not computers, which have no capacity for self reflection, and no awareness of how their cognitive processes are integrated, organized, and monitored 2. Computers lack emotions, which must be taken into account when considering cognitive functioning. Adolescents emotions tend to be more intense and more variable then either pre-adolescent children or adults emotions Thinking that involves not merely memorizing information but analyzing it, making judgements about what it means, relating it to other information, and considering ways in which it might be valid or invalid Describe three ways that cognitive development in adolescence provides the potential for critical thinking 1. A wider range of knowledge is available in long-term memory, across a variety of domains so the ability to analyze and make judgements about new information is enhanced by previous knowledge for comparison 2. The ability to consider different kinds of knowledge simultaneously is increased, which makes it possible to think of new combinations of knowledge 3. More metacognitive strategies are available for applying or gaining knowledge, such as planning and monitoring one's own comprehension – makes it possible to think more critically about what one is learning However, critical thinking skills do not develop automatically or inevitably- requires a foundation of skills and knowledge obtained in childhood, along with an educational environment that promotes and values critical thinking Theory of decision-making that describes the decision making process as including (1) identifying the range of possible choices; (2) identifying the consequences that would result from each choice; (3) evaluating the desirability of each consequence; (4) assessing the likelihood of each consequence; (5) and integrating this information Behavioural decision theory Describe the five steps of the decision-making process in the behavioural decision theory 1. Identifying the range of possible choices 2. Identifying the consequences that would result from each choice 3. Evaluating the desirability of each consequence 4. Assessing the likelihood of each consequence 5. Integrating this information into a decision Competence in this process varies substantially with age. Compared with preadolescent children, early adolescents generally identify a wider range of possible choices, are better at anticipating the consequences of the possible choices, and are better at evaluating and integrating information, but early adolescents are less skilled than late adolescents or emerging adults Most studies comparing adolescents and adults have found few differences between them in the decision-making processes they use. Why are adolescents so much more likely than adults to take risks such as driving while intoxicated or trying illegal drugs? May be that adolescents and adults make different evaluations about the desirability of possible consequences and may evaluate these consequences differently. They may also evaluate the potential consequences as less negative than adults would. The dual processing theory proposes that adolescent decision making is based on two different cognitive systems – analytic and uses the reasoning of formal operations, and heuristic based on intuitive factors such as past experience, emotions, and unconscious motivations. Heuristic factors continue to affect decision-making and do not necessarily improve, adolescents tend to accept an argument based on questionable analytical reasoning if they have intuitive reasons for excepting the argument Also, some argue that differences in decision making abilities between adolescents and adults should be divided into two broad categories: cognitive factors and psychosocial factors. Mature decision making would be viewed as the product of the interaction between both factors, with competent decision making potentially undermined by a deficiency in either area Term applied especially to cognitive development, meaning that cognitive development affects all areas of thinking, no matter what the topic Organizational core Cognitive development in adolescence functions as an organizational core that affects all areas of thinking, no matter what the topic. This means that the cognitive concepts we have discussed in relation to the physical world can be applied to social topics as well How people think about other people, social relationships, and social institutions The ability to understand the thoughts and feelings of others Stage of perspective taking, often found in early adolescence, in which persons understand that their perspective-taking interactions with others are mutual, in the sense that each side realizes that the other can take their perspective Mutual perspective taking Realizing that the social perspectives of self and others are influenced not just by their interaction with each other but by their roles in the larger society Social and conventional system perspective taking Promoting the well-being of others Prosocial Perspective taking abilities in one study were found to predict sympathy and prosocial behavior, behaviour that is kind and considerate. Adolescents who are good at perspective taking would also be good at making friends The ability to attribute mental states to one's self and others, including beliefs, thoughts, and feelings Describe Robert Selman's theory of how perspective taking develops through a series of stages, from early childhood through adolescence Used mainly interviews and provided children and adolescents with hypothetical situations and asked to comment on them. The research indicates that until adolescence, children's capacity for perspective taking is limited in various ways. Young children have difficulty separating their own perspective from those of others. Age 6 to 8- begin to develop perspective-taking skills but have difficulty comparing perspectives. Preadolescence, ages 8 to 10 – can
understand that others may have a point of view that is different from their own and realize that taking another's perspective can assist in understanding others intentions and actions. Late adolescence – social cognition develops further into social and conventional system perspective taking – adolescents come to realize that their social perspectives and those of others are influenced not just by their interactions with each other but also by the roles in the larger society Type of egocentrism in which adolescents have difficulty distinguishing their thinking about their own thoughts from their thinking about the thoughts of others Belief that others are acutely aware of and attentive to one's appearance and behaviour A belief in one's personal uniqueness, often including a sense of invulnerability to the consequences of taking risks The tendency to assume that accidents, diseases, and other misfortunes are more likely to happen to other people than to one's self Attempt to understand human cognition by evaluating cognitive abilities using intelligence tests French psychologist who developed the first intelligence test in the early 20th century, which later became known as the Stanford-Binet Widely used IQ test developed by Alfred Binet and revised by scholars at Stanford university A measure of a persons intellectual abilities based on a standardized test Intelligence test for children ages 6 to 16, with six verbal and five performance subtests Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC-IV) Intelligence test for persons ages 16 and up, with six verbal and five performance subtests Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS – IV) In the Wechsler IQ tests, subtests that exam and verbal abilities In the Weschler IQ tests, subtests that examine abilities for attention, spatial perception, and speed of processing In IQ tests, performance results compared to those of other persons of the same age Relative performance Relative performance on IQ tests is very stable – people who score higher than average in childhood tend to score higher than average as adolescents and adults, and it is the same for people who score lower than average In IQ tests, performance results compared to those of other persons, regardless of age Absolute performance Some interesting patterns of change occur in absolute performance from mid adolescence through young adulthood. For example, absolute scores on the verbal subtests generally improved from age 16 to 38, whereas absolute scores on the performance subtests tended to peak in the mid-20s and then decline Technique for developing a psychological test, in which a typical score for each age is established by testing a large random sample of people from a variety of geographical areas and social class backgrounds Age norms The Weschler IQ test has established age norms In a distribution of scores, the point at which half of the population scores above and half below Type of reliability that examines whether or not persons' scores on one occasion are similar to their scores on another occasion Test-retest reliability The Weschler IQ test has high test-retest reliability Mental abilities that involve speed of analyzing, processing, and reacting to information
Fluid intelligence The kind of ability tapped by the performance subtests in the Weschler IQ tests. This kind of intelligence peaks in emerging adulthood Accumulated knowledge and enhanced judgement based on experience Crystallized intelligence Subtests like information, comprehension, and vocabulary assess this kind of intelligence. Scores on these tests tend to improve through the 20s and 30s In longitudinal research, the ability of a variable at a time 1 to predict the outcome of a variable at time 2 Predictive validity IQ tests have reasonably good predictive validity – high IQ scores in adolescence predict relatively high educational attainment in emerging adulthood and occupational success in young adulthood and beyond and are also predictive of positive outcomes in adulthood on related to education and occupation, for example lower likelihood of divorce or alcoholism Describe the research on adoption studies and IQ In adoption studies that follow children from birth through adolescence, in early and middle childhood, a substantial correlation in IQ exists between adopted children and their adoptive parents. However, by the time adopted children reach adolescence, the correlation between their IQs and the IQs of their adoptive parents has declined, even though the number of years they have all been in the same family has increased Why? The adoption of children of one race by parents of a different race Howard Gardner's theory that there are eight separate types of intelligence Theory of multiple intelligences A technique for measuring brain functioning during an ongoing activity A technique for assessing ongoing brain functioning, in which a chemical that emits positrons is injected into the body, and detectors measure their activity levels in various parts of the brain Describe the research on transracial adoption involving black children who have been adopted by white parents African-Americans and Latinos generally score lower than whites on the most widely used IQ tests from childhood through adulthood and. Scholars disagree over the source – whether it be due to genetics or or cultural. Studies have found that when black children are raised in adoptive white families, their IQs are as high or higher than the average IQ for whites. This indicates that overall differences in IQ between whites and African-Americans are due to cultural and social class differences rather than to genetics Describe Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, including the eight types of intelligence 1. Linguistic Gardner believed that only the two intelligences, linguistic and logical mathematical, are evaluated
by intelligence tests The point of transmission between two nerve cells Cells of the nervous system, including the brain A rapid increase in the production of synaptic connections in the brain Overproduction or exuberance Scientists have learned that a considerable thickening of synaptic connections occurs around the time puberty begins, ages 10 to 12. It had been known for decades that over production occurs during prenatal development and through the first 18 months of life, but now it turns out that a new period of overproduction occurs in early adolescence as well The outer layer of the brain, where most of the growth in brain cells occurs during overproduction in adolescence The part of the brain immediately behind the forehead. Known to be involved in higher brain functions such as planning ahead and analyzing complex problems Following overproduction, the process by which the number of synapses in the brain are reduced, making brain functioning faster and more efficient but less flexible Synaptic pruning Between the ages of 12 and 20 the average brain those at 7% to 10% of its gray matter through synaptic pruning. Use it or lose it seems to be the operating principle Process by which myelin, a blanket of fat wrapped around the main part of the neuron, grows. Myelin serves the function of keeping the brains electrical signals on one path and increasing their speed
A structure in the lower brain, well beneath the cortex, long thought to be involved only in basic functions such as movement, now known to be important for many higher functions as well, such as mathematics, music, decision-making, and social skills Russian psychologist who emphasized the cultural basis of cognitive development The gap between how competently a person performs a task alone and when guided by an adult or more competent peer Zone of proximal development The degree of assistance provided to the learner in a zone of proximal development, gradually decreasing as the learner's skills develop The teaching interaction between two people, often an adult and a child or adolescent, as they participate in a culturally valued activity Approach to human psychology emphasizing that psychological functioning cannot be separated from the culture in which it takes place What involves adapting logical Thinking to the practical constraints of real life situations?Pragmatism - Theory of cognitive development proposing that postformal thinking involves adapting logical thinking to the practical constraints of real life.
What does dialectical thought involve quizlet?Dialectical thinking involves the constant integration of beliefs and experiences with all the contradictions and inconsistencies of daily life. Thesis. A proposition or statement of belief; the first stage of the processor dialectical thinking.
What happens to self esteem for most people during emerging adulthood?Studies of self-esteem development across the lifespan have found that self-esteem decreases during the transition to adolescence and then increases gradually over the course of adulthood, before declining in old age (Erol & Orth, 2011; Orth et al., 2012;Robins, Tracy, Trzesniewski, Potter, & Gosling, 2001).
|
What concept involves adapting logical thinking to the practical constraints of real life situations?
zusammenhängende Posts
Urheberrechte © © 2024 IlerngutCOM Inc.
