Which of the following represents the function of subgoals in the problem-solving process?

Abstract

Recent evidence has shown that although there are large adult-child differences in overall problem-solving performance, even preschoolers have rudimentary forms of strategies such as means-ends analysis that rely on the use of subgoals. However, in many situations, means-ends analysis is not applicable, and in order to solve a problem, some other method must be used. This study further explores preschoolers' repertoire of problem-solving methods. We use problems in which it is difficult to order subgoals, and in which, therefore, some method other than means-ends analysis must be used. 40 children between 45 and 70 months of age were presented with problems having ambiguous subgoal ordering. Although individual scores varied widely, none of several indices of performance were reliably correlated with age. A detailed analysis of move sequences revealed that preschoolers (a) tend to avoid backup, (b) are sensitive to incremental progress toward the goal, and (c) search 2 or 3 moves ahead for a goal. All of these component skills were combined into a "hill-climbing" method that explains 70% of the variance in problem difficulty.

Journal Information

As the flagship journal of the Society for Research in Child Development, Child Development has published articles, essays, reviews, and tutorials on various topics in the field of child development since 1930. Spanning many disciplines, the journal provides the latest research, not only for researchers and theoreticians, but also for child psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, psychiatric social workers, specialists in early childhood education, educational psychologists, special education teachers, and other researchers.

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The Nature of problem solving:

Problem-solving is goal directed behavior that often involves setting subgoals to enable the application of operators

3 Features of Problem Solving:

1. Goal directed

2. Subgoal decomposition

3. operator application : operator refers to an action that will transform the problem state into another problem state.

Problem-solving operators....

generate a space of possible states through which the problem solver must search to find a path to the goal.

3 ways to acquire new operators:

1. by discovery

2. by being told about them

3. by observing someone else use them

consists of various states of the problem

a representatino of the problem in some degree of solution

initial situation of the problem

situation on the way to the goal

-the challenge is to find some sequence of operators in the problem space that leads from the star state to the goal state.

SEARCH: the problem solver must find the path through a maze of states.

the solution to the problem

these are often involved in discussion of problem solving.

- they are a representation of the set of states that can be reached by applying operator to a start state.

involves noticing similarities between problems and then mapping elements from a previous solution to produce an operator for the current problem.

It is the process by which a problem solver maps the solution for one problem onto a solution for another problem.

EX: two problems, different surface structure, similar deep structure

- tumor problem

- fortress problem

True or False: Analogical problem solving appears to be a capability nearly unique to humans and to depend on the advanced development of the prefrontal cortex

TRUE.

- some evidence for chimpanzes

- right anterior (front) prefrontal cortex

- random trial and error

- hill climbing (difference reduction)

- means-end analysis

3 criteria that humans use to select operators:

- backup avoidance

- Difference reduction

- Means-ends analysis

the tendency in problem solving to avoid operators that take one back to a state already visite

tendency in problem solving to select operators that eliminate a difference between the current state and the goal

creation of new goal (end) to enable a problem-solving operator (means) to apply to achieving the old goal.

- this is used by the GPS

-hobbits and orcs

Difference Reduction (Hill climbing):

tendency to choose operators in problem solving that yield states more similar to the goal.

To reduce the difference between the current state and the goal state

People experience difficulty in solving a problem at points where______

the correct solution involves increasing the differences between the current state and the goal state

General Problem Solver (GPS)

created by Newell and Simon

- it is a problem solving simulation that includes means-ends analysis

- it models human problem solving

Involves creating subgoals to eliminate the difference between the current state and the condition for applying a desired operator_____

More sophisticated version of difference reduction that does not abandon an operator if it cannot be applied immediately______

problem solving task involved in labs

- involves moving disks among pegs

It is solved by adapting a means-ends analysis strategy in which subgoals are created.

plays a critical role in maintaning goal structures

those with prefrontal damage have particular difficulty when problem solving involves backward movement

those with frontal damage have difficulty inhibiting a predominant response.

What is the importance of correct representation of a problem?

- how a person represents a problem will influence wether they solve it correctly. EX: distance and speed prob

- Even those taught appropiate knoledge often don't transfer it to new problems

-Sometimes solutions to problems depend on the solver's ability to represent objects in novel ways.EX: the two-string problem

tendency to represent objects as serving conventional problem-solving functions. This leads to failing to see that they can serve as novel functions.

EX: duncker's candle problem

the biasing of a solution to a problem as a results of past experiences in solving that kind of problem.

shows that people can become biased to certain operators when solving a problem by their past experiences

Also called "Mechanizatio of thought"

- refers to the set effect in which people repeat a solution that has worked for previous problems even when simpler solution is possible

EX: water jug problem (Luchins)

the phenomenon that sometimes solutions to a particular problem come easier after a period of time in which one has ignored trying to solve the problem.

This effect happens because in this time we forget inappropiate strategies

Problems whose solution depend on one key insight, or "aha" momement:

Insight problems:

these are the ones in which solvers cant recognize when they are getting close to the solution