Defining the ProblemDefining a sociological problem helps frame a question to be addressed in the research process. Show
Learning Objectives Explain how the definition of the problem relates to the research process Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Defining the problem is necessarily the first step of the research process. After the problem and research question is defined, scientists generally gather information and other observations, form hypotheses, test hypotheses by collecting data in a reproducible manner, analyze and interpret that data, and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for new hypotheses. The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research: This image lists the various stages of the scientific method. The first step of the
scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within the context of a particular test but also broad enough to have a more general practical or theoretical merit. For many sociologists, the goal is to conduct research which may be applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from
the micro level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure. Operationalizing Variables: This video discusses what it means to operationalize a variable using the example of "good health. " Reviewing the LiteratureSociological researchers review past work in their area of interest and include this "literature review" in the presentation of their research. Learning Objectives Explain the purpose of literature reviews in sociological research Key TakeawaysKey Points
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A literature review is a logical and methodical way of organizing what has been written about a topic by scholars and researchers. Literature reviews can normally be found at the beginning of many essays, research reports, or theses. In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey what a researcher has learned through a careful reading of a set of articles, books, and other relevant forms of scholarship related to the research question. Furthermore, creating a literature review allows researchers to demonstrate the ability to find significant articles, valid studies, or seminal books that are related to their topic as well as the analytic skill to synthesize and summarize different views on a topic or issue. Library Research: Good literature reviews require exhaustive research. Online resources make this process easier, but researchers must still sift through stacks in libraries. A strong literature review has the following properties:
Formulating the HypothesisA hypothesis is a potential answer to your research question; the research process helps you determine if your hypothesis is true. Learning Objectives Explain how hypotheses are used in sociological research and the difference between dependent and independent variables Key TakeawaysKey Points
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A hypothesis is an assumption or suggested explanation about how two or more variables are related. It is a crucial step in the scientific method and, therefore, a vital aspect of all scientific research. There are no definitive guidelines for the production of new hypotheses. The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a flash of inspiration, or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to support or refute the idea. The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research: This image lists the various stages of the scientific method. While there is no single way to develop a hypothesis, a useful hypothesis will use deductive reasoning to make
predictions that can be experimentally assessed. If results contradict the predictions, then the hypothesis under examination is incorrect or incomplete and must be revised or abandoned. If results confirm the predictions, then the hypothesis might be correct but is still subject to further testing. Determining the Research DesignThe research design is the methodology and procedure a researcher follows to answer their sociological question. Learning Objectives Compare and contrast quantitive methods and qualitative methods Key TakeawaysKey Points
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The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research: This image lists the various stages of the scientific method. A research design encompasses the methodology and procedure employed to conduct scientific research. Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methods of obtaining knowledge. In general, scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design research to test these hypotheses
via predictions which can be derived from them. Quantitative MethodsQuantitative methods are generally useful when a researcher seeks to study large-scale patterns of behavior, while qualitative methods are often more effective when dealing with interactions and relationships in detail. Quantitative methods of sociological research approach social phenomena from the perspective that they can be measured and quantified. For instance, socio-economic status (often referred to by sociologists as SES) can be divided into different groups such as working-class, middle-class, and wealthy, and can be measured using any of a number of variables, such as income and educational attainment. Qualitative versus Quantitative Methods: These two researchers are
debating the relative merits of using qualitative or quantitative methods to study social phenomena such as the learning processes of children. Qualitative Methods Qualitative methods are often used to develop a deeper understanding of a particular phenomenon. They also often deliberately give up on quantity, which is necessary for statistical analysis, in order to reach a greater depth in analysis of the phenomenon being studied. While quantitative methods involve
experiments, surveys, secondary data analysis, and statistical analysis, qualitatively oriented sociologists tend to employ different methods of data collection and hypothesis testing, including participant observation, interviews, focus groups, content analysis, and historical comparison. Defining the Sample and Collecting DataDefining the sample and collecting data are key parts of all empirical research, both qualitative and quantitative. Learning Objectives Describe different types of research samples Key TakeawaysKey Points
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The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research: This image lists the various stages of the scientific method. Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyze a vast breadth of social phenomena. Many empirical forms of sociological research follow the scientific method. Scientific inquiry is generally intended to be as objective as possible in order to reduce the biased interpretations of results. Sampling and data collection are a key component of this process. Collecting Data: Natural scientists collect data by measuring and recording a sample of the thing they're studying, such as plants or soil. Similarly, sociologists must collect a sample of social information, often by surveying or interviewing a group of people. In both cases, it behooves the researcher to create a concrete list of goals for collecting data. For instance, a researcher might identify what characteristics should be represented in the subjects. Sampling can be used in both quantitative and qualitative
research. In statistics and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. The stages of the sampling process are defining the population of interest, specifying the sampling frame, determining the sampling method and sample size, and sampling and data collecting. Analyzing Data and Drawing ConclusionsData analysis in sociological research aims to identify meaningful sociological patterns. Learning Objectives Compare and contrast the analysis of quantitative vs. qualitative data Key TakeawaysKey Points
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The Process of Data Analysis Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and
modeling data with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making. In statistical applications, some people divide data analysis into descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA), and confirmatory data analysis (CDA). EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data and CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying existing hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses on the application of statistical or structural models for predictive
forecasting or classification. Text analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify information from textual sources, a species of unstructured data. Regression Analysis The type of data analysis employed can
vary. One way in which analysis often varies is by the quantitative or qualitative nature of the data. Linear Regression: This graph illustrates random data points and their linear regression. A large body of techniques for carrying out regression analysis has been developed. In practice, the performance of regression analysis methods depends on the form of the data generating process and how it relates to the regression approach being used. Since the true form of the data-generating process is generally not known, regression analysis often depends to some extent on making assumptions about this process. These assumptions are sometimes testable if a large amount of data is available. Regression models for prediction are often useful even when the assumptions are moderately violated, although they may not perform optimally. However, in many applications, especially with small effects or questions of causality based on observational data, regression methods give misleading results. CodingQualitative data can involve coding--that is, key concepts and variables are assigned a shorthand, and the data gathered is broken down into those concepts or variables. Coding allows sociologists to perform a more rigorous scientific analysis of the data. Coding is the process of categorizing qualitative data so that the data becomes quantifiable and thus measurable. Of course, before researchers can code raw data such as taped interviews, they need to have a clear research question. How data is coded depends entirely on what the researcher hopes to discover in the data; the same qualitative data can be coded in many different ways, calling attention to different aspects of the data. Coding Qualitative Data: Qualitative data can be coded, or sorted into categories. Coded data is quantifiable. In this bar chart, help requests have been coded and categorized so we can see which types of help requests are most common. Sociological Data AnalysisSociological data analysis is designed to produce patterns. It is important to remember, however, that correlation does not imply causation; in other words, just because variables change at a proportional rate, it does not follow that one variable influences the other. Correlation,
Causation, and Spurious Relationships: This mock newscast gives three competing interpretations of the same survey findings and demonstrates the dangers of assuming that correlation implies causation. Conclusions In terms of the kinds of conclusions that can be drawn, a study and its results can be assessed in multiple ways. Without a valid design, valid scientific conclusions cannot be drawn. Internal validity is an inductive estimate of the degree to which
conclusions about causal relationships can be made (e.g., cause and effect), based on the measures used, the research setting, and the whole research design. External validity concerns the extent to which the (internally valid) results of a study can be held to be true for other cases, such as to different people, places, or times. In other words, it is about whether findings can be validly generalized. Learning about and applying statistics (as well as knowing their limitations) can help you
better understand sociological research and studies. Knowledge of statistics helps you makes sense of the numbers in terms of relationships, and it allows you to ask relevant questions about sociological phenomena. Preparing the Research ReportSociological research publications generally include a literature review, an overview of the methodology followed, the results and an analysis of those results, and conclusions. Learning Objectives
Describe the main components of a sociological research paper Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Like any research paper, sociological research is presented with a literature review, an overview of the methods used in data collection, and analysis, findings, and conclusions. Quantitative research papers are usually highly formulaic, with a clear introduction (including presentation of the problem and literature review); sampling and methods; results; discussion and conclusion. In striving to be as objective as possible in order to reduce biased interpretations of results, sociological esearch papers follow the scientific method. Research reports may be published as books or journal articles, given directly to a client, or presented at professional meetings. The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research: The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. A literature review is a creative way of organizing what has been written about a topic by scholars and researchers. You will find literature reviews at the beginning of many essays, research reports, or theses. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what you have learned through a careful reading of a set of articles related to your research question.
The methodssection is necessary to demonstrate how the study was conducted, and that the data is valid for study. Without assurance that the research is based on sound methods, readers cannot countenance any conclusions the researcher proposes. In the methodology section, be sure to include: the population, sample frame,
sample method, sample size, data collection method, and data processing and analysis. This is also a section in which to clearly present information in table and graph form. Licenses and AttributionsCC licensed content, Shared previously
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What is the next step in a research project after the data are analyzed?Deciding on the Sample Design. Collecting Data From The Research Sample. Process and Analyze the Collected Research Data. Writing Research Report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating and Utilizing Results.
What are the 7 steps of research process?The Seven Steps of the Research Process. Step 1: Identify and Develop Your Topic. ... . Step 2: Find Background Information. ... . Step 3: Use Catalogs to Find Books and Media. ... . Step 4: Use Databases to Find Journal Articles. ... . Step 5: Find Internet Resources. ... . Step 6: Evaluate What You Find. ... . Step 7: Cite What You Find Using a Standard Format.. What are the 12 steps in the research process?What are the steps of the research process?. Identify the project topic. ... . Review any available literature. ... . Submit process for review. ... . Create an initial hypothesis. ... . Design the research approach. ... . Begin gathering data. ... . Analyze the results. ... . Create your report.. What is step 5 of the research process?Step 5 – Report Research Findings
The final step is to report the research findings to those who need the data to make decisions. The findings should be presented in a comprehensible format so that they can be readily used in the decision-making process.
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